MAY  i,  1898 


THE 


PASSING    OF  SPAIN 


ASCENDENCY  OF  AMERICA. 


J.  B.  CRABTREE. 


The  old  order  changeth, 
Yielding  place  to  new." 


PUBLISHED  ONI.Y  BY 

THE  KING-RICHARDSON  PUBLISHING  CO, 

SPRINGFIELD,  MASS. 

RICHMOND.          DBS  MOINES.       INDIANAPOLIS. 
TOLEDO.       SAN  JOSE.        DALLAS. 
1898. 


COPYRIGHT,  1898,  BY 
THE  KINO-RICHARDSON  PUBLISHING  Co. 

ALL  RIGHTS  RESERVED. 


WESD-PARSONS  PRINTING  Co., 

ILECTROTTPEKS,  PRINTERS  AND  BINDCR3, 

Albany,  N.  Y. 


Tib 


PREFATORY  NOTE. 


The  aim  of  this  book  is  to  give  in  a  condensed  but 
readable  form  the  information  necessary  to  an  intelli- 
gent understanding  of  the  present  question  as  a  whole. 
That  the  statements  might  be  as  nearly  accurate  as 
possible,  constant  reference  has  been  made  to  the 
highest  available  authorities,  often  quoting  verbatim 
and  naming  the  author  in  each  instance. 

There  is  appended  a  condensed  list  of  these  authori- 
ties, which  will  be  of  value  to  the  student  who  wishes 
to  pursue  the  subject  more  fully,  as  well  as  of  interest 
to  the  general  reader. 

We  gratefully  acknowledge  the  courtesy  of  the  pub- 
lishers of  the  "  Scientific  American,"  of  Henry  Holt  & 
Co.,  and  of  others,  who  have  generously  allowed  us  to 
make  use  of  matter  covered  by  their  copyrights. 

One  cannot  follow  the  history  of  Spain's  career  with- 
out coming  to  believe  that  true  freedom  must  ever  go 
hand  in  hand  with  religious  and  intellectual  liberty.  It 
is  as  true  now  as  of  old  that  "  righteousness  exalteth  a 
nation,  but  sin  is  a  reproach  to  any  people." 

J.  B.  C. 
[31 


960E 


AUTHORITIES  CONSULTED. 


American  Law  Review.     Boston. 

Army  and  Navy  Journal.     New  York. 

Baird,  Henry  M.     The  Huguenots  and  Henry  of  Navarre.     New 

York. 
Battleships,    Cruisers  and  Torpedo   Boats  of  the  Spanish  Navy. 

Publication  of  the  Adjutant-General's  Office.     Washington. 
Bernaldiaz  del  Castillo. 
Bowen.     International  Law. 
Brassey,   Lord  T.   A.  (ed.)      Naval  Annual,  '92,  '93,  '94,  '95,  "96, 

'97,  '98.     London. 

Bruff.     Ordnance  and  Gunnery.     New  York. 
Cassier's  Magazine.     New  York. 
Consular  Reports.     Washington. 
Cortez,    Hernando.      Despatches    to    the    Emperor    Charles   V. 

New  York. 
Creasey,  Sir  Edward,     Fifteen    Decisive    Battles   of   the  World 

London. 

Davis,  Geo.  B.     Outline  of  International  Law.     New  York.     1887. 
Draper,    John  W.      The    Intellectual    Development    of    Europe 

New  York. 

Conflict  of  Science  and  Religion. 

Dyer,  Thomas  Henry.     History  of  Modern  Europe.     London. 
Engineer  (The).      London. 
Engineering.     London. 
Engineering  Magazine. 
Field,  David  Dudley. 
Fortnightly  Review.     London. 

Green,  J.  R.     Greater  History  of  the  English  People.      New  York. 

[5] 


6  AUTHORITIES    CONSULTED. 

History  Studies  of  Johns  Hopkins  University.     Baltimore. 
Information  from  Abroad.     Publication  of  the  Naval  Intelligence 

Office.     Washington. 
Journal  of  United  States  Artillery. 
Macaulay,  Thomas  B.     Spain  Under  Philip  II. 

Church  of  Rome. 
Mahan,  Captain  A.  T.     Influence  of  Sea  Power  Upon    History. 

Boston.     1890. 
Influence  of  Sea  Power  Upon  the  French  Revolution   and 

Empire.     Boston.      1892. 
Marine  Engineering.     New  York. 
Messages  of  the  Presidents.     Washington. 
Motley,  John  L.     Rise  of  the  Dutch  Republic.     New  York. 
Parkman,  Francis.     Pioneers  of  France  in  the  New  World. 
Pearce.     History  of  Spain. 
Prescott,    William    H.      History    of    the    Conquest    of   Mexico. 

Philadelphia. 

Proceedings  of  the  United  States  Naval  Institute,  Annapolis. 
Radford.     Hand-Book  on  Naval  Gunnery.     New  York. 
Scientific  American.     New  York. 
State  Department  Documents.     Washington. 

Trench,  R.  C.     Gustavus  Adolphus  in  Germany.     London.     1872. 
Twiss,  Sir  Travers.     Belligerents'  Rights  on  the  High   Seas  Since 

the  Declaration  of  Paris.     London. 
United  Service.     Magazine. 
Wharton,  Francis  (ed.)     Digest  of  the   International  Law  of  the 

United  States.  Washington.  1889. 
Woolsey,  Theodore  D.  International  Law. 
Yeats,  John.  Growth  and  Vicissitudes  of  Commerce.  London. 

1872. 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


U.  S.  Protected  Cruiser  "  Olympia." 
Spanish  Leaders, 

Blanco  —  Weyler  —  Cervera  —  Montijo. 
Present  and  possible  rulers  of  Spain, 

Queen  Regent  —  Alfonso  III  —  Castelar  —  Don  Carlos. 
Maj.-Gen.  Jos.  Wheeler,  U.  S.  Volunteers. 
U.  S.  2nd  Class  Battleship  "  Maine." 
Wreck  of  the  "  Maine." 
Rear  Admiral  Dewey. 
U.  S.  Monitor  "  Monterey." 
Maj.-Gen.  Fitzhugh  Lee,  U.  S.  Volunteers. 
Cuban  Leaders, 

Marti  —  Garcia —  Gomez  —  Maceo  —  Palma. 
Commodore  Winfield  Scott  Schley. 
Bird's-eye  View  of  Santiago  Harbor  and  Defenses. 
Spanish  Mercy  (Shooting  Insurgents). 
William  McKinley. 
Battle  Plan  of  Manilla  Bay. 
Crew  of  the  "  Maine." 
Acting  Rear  Admiral  W.  T.  Sampson. 
Richmond  Pearson  Hobson. 
Russell  A.  Alger,  Secretary  of  War. 
Military  Leaders, 

Miles  —  Merritt  —  Shafter  —  Roosevelt  —  Mahan. 
U.  S.  Coast  Defense  Battleship  "Oregon." 
U.  S.  Torpedo  Boat  "  Winslow  "  and  Ensign  Worth  Bagley. 
Spanish  Armored  Cruiser  "  Vizcaya  "  (Destroyed  at  Santiago). 
Gen.  John  M.  Schofield  (Retired). 
Spain's  Naval  Strength  at  the  Beginning  of  the  War. 
John  D.  Long,  Secretary  of  the  Navy. 
Our  First  Prizes. 

U.  S.  Armored  Cruiser  "  New  York,"  Flagship  of  the  Atlantic  Squadron. 
U.  S.  Dynamite  Cruiser  "  Vesuvius." 
Six  Inch  Rapid-Fire  Gun  of  the  "  New  Orleans." 

[7] 


8  LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS. 

U.  S.  Ram  "Katahdin." 

Mortar  Pit  in  Action, 

Battle  of  Manilla  (Double  page  colored). 

Sectional  View  of  Commerce  Destroyer  "  Minneapolis.' 

Sectional  View  of  Armored  Cruiser  "  Brooklyn." 

Sectional  View  of  Battleship  "  Oregon." 

Sectional  View  of  Spanish  Battleship  "  Pelayo." 

Sectional  View  of  Six  Spanish  Cruisers. 

Sectional  View  of  the  Monitor's  Turret. 

View  of  Keel  of  U.  S.  Ram   "  Katahdin." 

Thirteen-Inch  Gun  at  the  Proving  Grounds. 

Maxim  Automatic  Naval  Gun. 


if  I 


>f 


REAR-ADMIRAL    GEORGE    DEWEY. 


SPANISH 


r        ^r"  ^ 


CERVER-A. 


JOSEPH    WHEELER.    MAJOR-GENERAL    U.    S.   VOLUNTEERS. 


1 


WILLIAM  M'KINLEY. 


V       >    v* 

£   ~V 


\ 


••-  . 


r.      I 

-r 


FITZHUGH    LEE,    MAJOR-GENERAL   U.  S     VOLUNTEERS. 


COMMODORE    WIXFIELD    SCOTT    SCHLEY. 


KIRDSKYE   VIEW    OF    HARBOR    OF    SANTIAGO    DE    CUBA. 


ACTING    REAR-ADMIRAL    WILLIAM    T.    SAMPSON. 


RICHMOND   PEARSON   HOKSON. 


RUSSELL    A.    ALGER,    SECRETARY    OF    WAR. 


GENERAL    JOHN    M     SCHOF1ELD. 


JOHN    D.    LONG,    SECRETARY    OF    NAVY. 


! 

•Tf 


THE  PASSING  OF  SPAIN. 


CHAPTER   I. 

Spain. 

A  kingdom  of  Europe  occupying  the  greater  portion 
of  the  Iberian  Peninsula  and  reaching  farther  south  than 
any  other  country  of  Europe,  and  farther  west  than  any 
other  but  Portugal.  Its  greatest  length  from  north  to 
south  is  560  miles,  from  east  to  west  650  miles,  the  aver- 
age width  about  380.  Including  the  Balearic  and 
Canary  Isles,  its  area  is  195,738  square  miles;  its  popu- 
lation in  1887,  its  last  official  census,  was  17,673,838.  It 
increases  in  population  very  slowly.  From  '77  to  '87  the 
gain  was  4.7  per  cent.  For  the  decade  preceding  '77, 
the  gain  was  3.5  per  cent. 

In  1890  the  United  States,  exclusive  of  Indian  Terri- 
tory and  Alaska,  had  an  area  of  2,939,000  square  miles, 
with  a  population  of  over  62,000,000,  a  gain  in  population 
of  24.9  per  cent  since  1880. 

Cities. 

Spain's  largest  city,  Madrid,  has  a  population  about 
equal  to  that  of  Boston. 

The  principal  Mediterranean  ports  are:  Barcelona, 
population  272,000;  Malaga,  134,000;  Cartagena,  84,000. 

Atlantic  ports:  Cadiz,  63,000,  and  Ferrol,  22,000. 

Biscayan  ports:  Bilbao,  50,000,  and  Santander,  31,000. 


42  THE    PASSING    OF    SPAIN    AND 

All  these  are  fortified.  Ferrol  has  one  of  the  best  har- 
bors in  Europe.  The  entrance  is  narrow  and  might  be 
well  defended.  Spain  has  here  a  large  arsenal  and  a 
good  ship-building  plant.  Corunna,  twelve  miles  south- 
west of  Ferrol,  has  also  a  good  harbor  well  fortified  and 
has  some  government  ship-yards. 

Surface. 

The  surface  of  Spain  is  more  varied  than  that  of  any 
other  country  of  Europe  of  the  same  size.  There  are 
seven  distinct  mountain  ranges,  between  which  flow  the 
great  rivers  Duro,  Tagus,  Guadiana  and  Guadalquivir. 
The  central  region,  comprising  about  one-half  the  whole 
area,  is  a  great  plateau,  having  an  average  elevation  of 
about  2,300  feet.  The  rivers  are  navigable  only  for 
small  boats  near  their  mouths.  "Spain  has  1,400  miles 
of  coast  line,  which  is  little  indented  except  on  the  north- 
west, where  it  is  bold  and  rocky." 

Climate  and  Soil. 

The  climate  varies  with  the  configuration  of  the  coun- 
try. Madrid  is  said  to  have  experienced  weather  so 
severe  that  sentinels  on  duty  were  frozen  to  death.  The 
soil  is  generally  fertile,  and  eighty  per  cent  of  it  is  classed 
as  productive.  Wheat,  rye,  barley,  corn,  olives,  grapes 
and  oranges  are  the  principal  agricultural  products. 
Spain  is  rich  in  minerals.  Iron  is  abundant.  In  1895 
its  mineral  exports  were  valued  at  thirty-four  millions  of 
dollars,  the  chief  of  which  were  iron,  copper,  zinc,  phos- 
phorus, coal  and  salt. 

Religion. 

The  Constitution  enacts :  "  The  nation  binds  itself  to 
maintain  the  worship  and  ministers  of  the  Roman  Catho- 
lic religion."  Nearly  the  whole  population  are  Roman 
Catholic.  In  1887  there  were  6,654  Protestants  and  400 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  43 

Jews.  By  the  Constitution  of  1876  a  restricted  liberty 
of  worship  in  private  is  allowed  Protestants,  but  all  pub- 
lic announcements  of  such  services  are  forbidden. 

In  1894  there  were  32,435  priests,  1,684  monks,  14,592 
nuns.  There  were  65  cathedrals,  30  religious  colleges, 
18,564  churches,  and  1 1,202  other  buildings  of  a  religious 
character. 

Education. 

By  the  law  of  1857  there  was  to  be  a  primary  school 
for  every  five  hundred  inhabitants,  and  compulsory  edu- 
cation was  to  be  rigidly  enforced.  The  theory  did  not 
materialize.  The  average  teacher's  wages  ranges  from 
fifty  to  one  hundred  dollars  per  year;  and  of  the  popula- 
tion, 68.1  per  cent  can  neither  read  nor  write;  3.4  per 
cent  can  read  but  not  write ;  and  only  28.5  per  cent  can 
read  and  write.  There  are  about  two  males  to  one  female 
of  those  who  can  read  and  write.  The  entire  sum  spent 
for  education  in  1887  was  less  than  $400,000. 

Finance. 

"  The  Bank  of  Spain  is  the  great  financial  institution 
of  the  country.  It  was  organized  in  1874  and  possesses 
the  exclusive  right  to  issue  circulating  notes.  The  limit 
of  issue  was  originally  about  $150,000,000,  but  in  1891 
this  limit  was  doubled.  Ostensibly  the  Bank  is  required 
to  keep  a  reserve  of  one-third  of  its  circulation,  one-half 
of  it  being  gold.  The  actual  outstanding  circulation  in 
1 890  was  $46,800,000,  and  the  notes  were  then  at  a  slight 
discount  in  gold,  and  with  the  continual  increase  in  the 
issue  of  notes  which  has  been  going  on  the  premium  on 
gold  is  now  fifty  per  cent. 

"  The  fact  is  that  the  Bank  has  not  for  a  long  time 
paid  for  its  notes.  It  professes  to  redeem  them  in  silver, 
but  the  fall  in  the  price  of  silver  has  made  the  gold  value 
of  the  bullion  in  the  silver  coin  of  less  value  than  the 


44  THE    PASSING    OF    SPAIN    AND 

gold  value  of  the  bank  notes  of  the  same  denomination. 
The  stock  of  gold  in  the  Bank  is  simply  held  and  is  of 
no  particular  service  as  circulation,  although  it  may  be 
drawn  on  in  the  emergencies  of  the  war.  The  circulation 
has  steadily  increased  as  the  Government  has  made 
demands  on  the  Bank,  until  last  April  the  limit  of 
$300,000,000  had  nearly  been  reached. 

"  The  Bank  makes  advances  to  the  Government  on 
the  security  of  bonds  and  treasury  notes.  Therefore,  as 
the  Government  has  now  unlimited  power  to  make  loans 
and  to  lay  taxes,  there  seems  to  be  no  limit  to  the  extent 
to  which  the  issues  of  the  Bank  of  Spain  may  be  extended 
in  support  of  the  war.  No  doubt  they  will  continue  to 
depreciate  from  the  gold  par  and  will  very  soon  be  worth 
less  than  the  silver  coin,  but  when  a  nation  becomes 
thoroughly  aroused  and  determined,  paper  money  be- 
comes merely  a  means  of  bringing  into  action  all  the 
material  strength  of  the  country.  It  is  really  a  forced 
loan  levied  upon  the  whole  property  of  the  nation  regard- 
less of  individual  rights  and  of  everything  except  the  one 
object  of  preserving  the  life  of  the  nation.  The  assignats 
of  France,  the  paper  money  of  the  Confederate  States, 
the  Continental  money  of  the  Revolution,  all  served  the 
purpose,  and  finally  remained  valueless  in  the  hands  of 
the  last  holders.  The  legal-tender  notes  of  the  Civil 
War  did  not  depreciate  to  this  extent,  but  at  one  time 
they  progressed  far  in  this  direction  and  the  losses  to  in- 
dividuals through  their  fluctuations  never  were  and  never 
can  be  adjusted. 

"  It  is  well,  however,  not  to  count  too  much  on  the  in- 
ability of  Spain  to  carry  on  war  on  account  of  financial 
weakness.  There  may  be  other  reasons  why  she  may 
fail  to  make  headway  against  this  country,  but  it  will  not 
be  wholly  from  lack  of  money."* 

*"  Bankers'  Magazine,"  June,  1898. 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  45 

Spain's  total  debt  in  1897  was  $1,709,806,331.64,  the 
interest  on  which  was  $67,584,525.80.  About  one-half 
her  debt  was  held  in  France,  and  for  $400,000,000  of  it 
the  revenues  and  monopolies  of  Cuba  are  pledged  as  col- 
lateral security.  This  will  very  naturally  make  the  own- 
ers of  such  bonds  much  averse  to  losing  their  collateral. 
Just  before  the  Maine  disaster  Spanish  4  per  cent  bonds 
sold  for  62 £  in  London.  When  the  American  fleet 
appeared  off  Havana  they  had  fallen  to  30^.  At  that 
rate,  if  she  wished  to  float  a  bond  at  par,  it  would  be 
necessary  for  it  to  bear  13  per  cent,  interest.  The 
United  States  bond  bearing  4  per  cent,  interest  is  sell- 
ing to-day  for  121.  On  the  receipt  of  the  news  of  the 
American  victory  at  Manila,  gold  went  to  a  premium  of 
1 1 1  in  Madrid ;  or,  in  other  words,  a  dollar  of  her  paper 
currency  was  worth  about  47  cents. 

The  revenues  of  the  Spanish  Government  are  raised 
by  direct  and  indirect  taxes,  stamp  duties,  income  from 
government  property  and  from  various  government 
monopolies. 

Direct  taxes  are  levied  on  real  estate,  certain  indus- 
tries, commerce,  titles  of  nobility,  mortgages  and  certain 
products  of  the  mines. 

Indirect  taxes  are  levied  on  imports,  specified  articles 
of  commerce,  the  tolls  of  roads,  bridges,  canals,  etc. 

Her  revenue  in  1897  was  $212,983,527.92,  and  the 
expenditure  about  as  much.  To-day  her  expenditures 
have  greatly  increased,  and  now  much  exceed  her  in- 
come, and  ruin  or  repudiation  of  her  debt  stares  her 
in  the  face.  Repudiation  is  nothing  new  to  her,  as  she 
repudiated  no  longer  ago  than  the  '7o's.  The  unit  of 
value  in  Spanish  currency  is  the  peseta  (pa-sa'-ta),  di- 
vided into  one  hundred  centesimos. 

In  1895  the  total  exports  of  Spain  were  686,700,802 
pesetas,  and  the  imports  were  660,875,994  pesetas,  France 
and  Great  Britain  getting  the  lion's  share  of  the  trade. 


46  THE    PASSING   OF    SPAIN    AND 

A  bulletin  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture,  just 
issued,  shows  the  amount  and  character  of  our  trade  with 
Spain: 

"Our  trade  with  Spain,  although  subject  to  minor 
fluctuations,  appears  to  have  been  gradually  shrinking 
for  about  fifteen  years.  It  attained  its  maximum  develop- 
ment in  1883,  when  the  combined  imports  and  exports 
reached  the  value  of  $24,725,632,  or  more  than  $10,000,- 
ooo  in  excess  of  the  present  figures.  The  returns  for 
1897,  with  the  single  exception  of  those  for  1895,  which 
fell  to  $14,501,195,  were  the  lowest  recorded  since  1878, 
twenty  years  ago.  The  average  value  per  annum  for  the 
last  five  years,  1893-1897,  amounted  to  $16,240,588, 
as  against  $18,305,404  for  the  five  years  immediately 
preceding. 

"  In  our  commercial  intercourse  with  Spain  the  bal- 
ance of  trade  has  been  very  decidedly  in  favor  of  the 
United  States. 

"  Of  the  commodities  that  enter  into  our  commercial 
transactions  with  Spain  about  75  per  cent  may  be  classed 
as  products  of  agriculture.  The  preponderance  of  agri- 
cultural matter  is  particularly  noticeable  in  our  exporta- 
tions  to  that  country. 

"  Among  the  products  of  agriculture  that  are  imported 
into  the  United  States  from  Spain,  fruits  and  nuts  comprise 
the  most  important  item,  constituting  in  value  considerably 
more  than  half  of  the  total  agricultural  purchases.  After 
fruit  and  nuts  the  product  of  greatest  value  is  wine.  These 
two  items,  fruits  and  nuts  and  wine,  form  about  85  per 
cent  of  the  imported  agricultural  matter.  The  only  other 
agricultural  imports  of  any  considerable  importance  are, 
in  the  order  of  their  value,  argol,  hides  and  skins,  vegeta- 
bles, and  vegetable  oils. 

"  Raisins,  oranges  and  lemons  are  the  principal  fruits 
imported  from  Spain.  Figs,  currants,  and  several  other 
varieties  are  also  imported,  but  in  very  small  and  irregu- 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  47 

lar  quantities.  Raisins  are  still  the  leading  item,  although 
they  were  formerly  brought  from  Spain  in  much  larger 
quantities  than  now. 

"  The  total  value  of  the  several  varieties  of  fruit  im- 
ported from  Spain,  which  amounted  to  $2,190,363  per 
annum  during  1888-1892,  fell  to  $1,289,194  per  annum 
during  1893-1897. 

"  The  most  important  classes  of  merchandise  included 
in  our  non-agricultural  imports  from  Spain  are:  Cork 
wood  or  bark  and  its  manufactures;  chemicals,  drugs 
and  dyes;  iron  ore;  lead  and  lead  manufactures;  palm 
leaf  manufactures,  and  wood  and  its  manufactures.  The 
several  commodities  mentioned  constitute  in  value  about 
70  per  cent  of  the  total  imports  of  non-agricultural  mer- 
chandise. 

"  Cork  in  its  crude  and  manufactured  forms  is  the  most 
valuable  of  these  imports.  Our  purchases  during  the 
last  five  years  have  amounted  to  nearly  $500,000  per 
annum. 

"  Licorice  root  is  another  article  of  this  group  that  is 
imported  quite  extensively  from  Spain.  The  imports  for 
1897,  amounting  to  2,222,982  pounds,  valued  at  $60,515, 
were  unusually  small. 

"  Iron  ore  is  one  of  our  leading  non-agricultural  im- 
ports from  Spain.  The  quantity  now  imported,  however, 
is  much  smaller  than  formerly,  the  last  few  years  showing 
a  marked  falling  off. 

"  Products  of  agriculture  comprise  in  value  fully  85 
per  cent  of  the  domestic  merchandise  exported  from  the 
United  States  to  Spain.  Cotton  and  tobacco  are  by 
far  the  most  important  items.  Together  they  form  more 
than  90  per  cent  of  all  the  agricultural  produce  we  send 
to  the  Spanish  market.  The  only  other  agricultural 
exports  of  any  considerable  importance  are  wheat,  wheat 
flour,  and  corn  among  the  breadstuffs,  lard  and  tallow 
among  the  meat  products,  and  sausage  skins. 


48  THE    PASSING    OF    SPAIN    AND 

"  Cotton  is  the  mainstay  of  our  export  trade  with  Spain. 
Measured  in  value,  it  constitutes  over  80  per  cent  of  our 
agricultural  exports  to  that  country,  and  about  70  per 
cent  of  all  the  merchandise  we  market  there.  During 
the  past  twenty  years  the  shipments  have  more  than 
doubled  in  size,  and  much  of  this  growth  has  occurred 
within  a  decade. 

"After  cotton,  our  most  important  agricultural  export 
to  Spain  is  leaf  tobacco.  The  annual  shipments  average 
about  20,000,000  pounds,  and  their  value  about  a  million 
dollars. 

"  Our  exports  of  breadstuffs  to  Spain  vary  greatly  from 
year  to  year.  The  largest  shipments  of  the  decade  were 
made  in  1863,  amounting  in  value  to  $1,941,206,  while 
the  smallest — those  for  1895  —  were  valued  at  only 

$4432. 

"  The  shipments  of  wheat,  which  is  the  leading  item 
in  this  group,  have  been  extremely  spasmodic.  In  1893 
they  aggregated  as  high  as  2,443,105  bushels,  while  in 
1895  there  appear  to  have  been  no  shipments  whatever. 

"The  only  other  American  cereal  marketed  to  any 
extent  in  Spain  is  Indian  corn.  The  shipments  of  this 
grain,  like  those  of  wheat,  have  been  subject  to  great 
fluctuations. 

"  Of  the  various  meat  products  shipped  from  the 
United  States  to  Spain,  lard  is  the  only  item  of  any  con- 
siderable importance.  Formerly  this  commodity  was 
sent  to  the  Spanish  market  in  much  larger  quantities 
than  now. 

"  Of  the  various  non-agricultural  commodities  shipped 
from  the  United  States  to  Spain,  the  most  conspicuous 
are  wood  and  its  manufactures,  and  crude  mineral  oil. 
The  sum  we  receive  for  these  two  items  constitutes  more 
than  85  per  cent  of  the  entire  amount  the  Spanish  pay 
for  our  non-agricultural  exports.  The  only  other  items 
of  any  considerable  importance  among  this  class  of 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  49 

exports  are  bituminous  coal,  the  group  of  articles  entitled 
chemicals,  drugs,  dyes  and  medicines,  merchandise  in- 
cluded under  iron  and  steel  and  their  manufactures,  and 
rosin. 

"  Iron  and  steel  and  their  manufactures  were  marketed 
in  Spain  to  the  extent  of  $26,261  per  annum  during 
1888-1892,  and  $29,133  per  annum  during  1893-1897. 
In  1897,  however,  the  shipments  were  much  smaller 
than  usual,  only  $15,724.  Machinery  is  the  leading 
item." 

Government. 

Spain  has  a  written  Constitution  consisting  of  eighty- 
nine  articles,  established  in  1876.  It  specifies  that  Spain 
shall  be  a  constitutional  monarchy,  leaves  the  execution 
of  the  laws  resting  with  the  king,  and  vests  the  power  to 
make  laws  "  in  the  Cortes  with  the  king." 

Cortes. 

The  Spanish  Cortes  is  composed  of  a  senate  and  a 
congress,  equal  in  power.  Of  the  senators  there  are  three 
classes: 

First.  —  Senators  by  their  own  right.  To  this  class 
belong  sons  of  the  king,  if  any,  and  of  the  next  heir  to 
the  throne  who  is  of  age ;  grandees  in  their  own  right  who 
have  an  annual  income  of  $12,000;  captain-generals  of 
the  army;  admirals  of  the  navy;  the  Patriarch  of  the  In- 
dies; and  the  archbishops;  the  presidents  of  the  Council 
of  State,  of  the  Supreme  Tribunal,  and  of  the  Supreme 
Council  of  War  and  of  Navy,  after  they  have  held  office 
two  years. 

Second. — This  class  comprises  life  senators  appointed 
by  the  crown.  As  a  safeguard  the  senators  of  the  first 
and  second  classes  must  never  exceed  in  number  the 
senators  of  the  elective  class. 

Third.  —  This  class  consists  of  180  senators  elected  by 
corporations  and  the  highest  taxpayers.  Of  the  elected 


5O  THE    PASSING   OF    SPAIN    AND 

senators  one-half  must  be  chosen  every  five  years,  and  all 
of  them  whenever  the  monarch  dissolves  that  part  of  the 
Cortes. 

Congress. 

Congress  consists  of  432  members  elected  for  five 
years  and  in  the  proportion  of  about  one  to  every  50,000 
population.  The  right  of  franchise  is  held  by  all  male 
Spaniards  25  years  of  age  who  enjoy  full  civil  rights  and 
have  been  citizens  of  the  district  for  at  least  two  years. 
Members  of  congress,  unless  they  belong  to  the  cabinet, 
cannot  hold  state  office  nor  receive  salaries  or  pensions. 
Congress  and  the  senate  must  meet  each  year. 

The  monarch  has  the  power  of  convoking,  suspending 
or  dissolving  the  Cortes,  but  if  dissolved,  a  new  Cortes 
must  meet  within  three  months.  The  monarch  appoints 
the  president  and  vice-president  of  the  senate,  from  mem- 
bers of  the  senate.  Congress  chooses  its  own  officers 
and  has  the  power  of  impeaching  ministers  before  the 
senate.  The  monarch  cannot  marry  without  the  ap- 
proval of  the  Cortes;  nor  marry  anyone  excluded  by  law 
from  succession  to  the  throne. 

Ministry. 

The  Spanish  ministry  corresponds  to  the  English  and 
American  cabinet.  The  monarch  is  inviolable,  but  his 
ministers  are  responsible  for  all  acts  that  offend  the  peo- 
ple, and  are  frequently  punished.  All  decrees  of  the  king 
must  be  signed  by  one  of  the  ministers. 

Army  and  Navy. 

All  Spaniards  over  19  years  of  age  may  be  required  to 
serve  three  years  in  the  active  army,  three  years  in  the 
first  reserve,  and  six  years  in  the  second  reserve,  but  may 
purchase  exemption  from  service  for  about  $300.00. 
Spain  has  thirteen  military  schools  and  colleges.  Spain 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  5! 

claims  to  be  able  to  mobilize  an  army  of  more  than  one 
million  in  case  of  necessity.  Spain  has  a  fairly  powerful 
navy,  consisting  of  one  first-class  battleship,  eight  splen- 
did armored  cruisers,  and  other  vessels  which  we  shall 
describe  in  detail.  The  present  navy  is  manned  by  about 
1,000  officers,  800  machinists,  14,000  sailors  and  900 
marines.  The  recruits  for  the  army  and  navy  are  secured 
by  conscription.  The  individual  courage  of  the  men 
ranks  high,  but  Spanish  officers  throughout  their  whole 
history  have  shown  marvelous  capacity  for  doing  the 
wrong  thing  at  the  wrong  time.  They  are  wretched  en- 
gineers, and  depend  almost  wholly  upon  the  Scotch  and 
French  to  fill  these  positions.  Their  gunnery  does  not 
enjoy  a  high  reputation  for  accuracy,  and  the  poverty  of 
their  resources  has  prevented  target  practice. 

War  Strength. —  In  March,  1896,  exclusive  of  56  line 
battalions,  and  10  rifle  battalions  then  in  Cuba,  there  were 
available  for  mobolization  in  the  peninsula,  including  the 
garrisons  of  the  Balearic  and  Canary  Islands,  and  of 
North  Africa: 

Infantry — 56  second  battalions  at  1,000,  56,000  men; 
56  third  battalions  at  1,000,  56,000  men,  and  ten  rifle  bat- 
talions at  1,200,  12,000  men. 

Cavalry  —  28  regiments  at  596  horses  and  700  men, 
19,600  men. 

Artillery — 14  field  artillery  regiments,  each  of  8  bat- 
teries of  6  guns,  with  an  equal  number  of  artillery  and 
infantry  ammunition  columns,  25,606  men;  3  mountain 
artillery  regiments  and  ammunition  columns,  7,254  men ;  9 
battalions  fortress  artillery,  partly  of  6,  partly  of  4  com- 
panies, 8,175  men. 

Engineers  —  4  sapper  and  miner  regiments  at  2,000, 
8,000  men;  i  pontoon  regiment,  3,442  men;  i  railway 
regiment,  1,040  men;  i  telegraph  battalion,  1,272  men; 
total,  198,389  men. 

To  these  have  to   be  added  the  administrative  and 


52  THE    PASSING    OF    SPAIN    AND 

sanitary  services,  4,845  men.  The  cavalry  takes  the  field 
with  1 6,708  horses,  the  artillery  has  816  field  guns. 

The  following  reserve  troops  were  also  available: 

Infantry — 112  reserve  battalions  (56  regiments  of  3 
battalions)  at  1,000  men,  112,000  men. 

Cavalry — 14  reserve  regiments  of  4  squadrons,  with 
600  horses  and  702  men,  9,828  men. 

Artillery  —  7  field  artillery  regiments,  I  for  each  army 
corps  district,  and  136  guns,  14,140. 

Engineers — New  formations,  6,000  men;  total,  141,- 
968  men. 

Apart,  therefore,  from  the  troops  in  Cuba,  1 30,000  men 
in  round  numbers,  there  were  in  March,  1896,  available 
on  mobilization,  340,000  men,  with  25,108  horses  (cav- 
alry) and  952  guns. 

Military  Schools. 

Spain  has  thirteen  schools  for  the  instruction  of  the 
officers  of  her  army  and  navy. 

The  principal  primary  naval  school  at  Ferrol,  on  the 
northwest  coast,  has  a  course  of  from  two  and  one-half  to 
three  years,  and  includes  natural  philosophy,  mathe- 
matics, hydrography,  fencing,  gymnastics,  drawing,  and 
the  study  of  one  foreign  language.  From  this  school 
they  are  graduated  to  a  higher  institution  at  Cadiz,  and 
complete  their  course  in  the  academy  of  San  Carlo  or 
San  Fernandino. 

The  school  at  San  Carlo  is  for  artillery  only,  and  sup- 
plies from  its  graduates  the  officers  for  the  guns  of  both 
the  army  and  navy.  The  engineer  students  are  educated 
at  other  schools,  and  the  marine  officers  at  a  school  where 
they  have  a  special  system  of  their  own.  Service  in  this 
corps  is  esteemed  but  lightly,  and  the  cadets  are  made 
up  of  those  who  have  failed  in  other  schools,  non-com- 
missioned officers,  etc. 

The  Spanish  naval  cadet  comes  only  from  the  higher 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  53 

classes.  There  are  a  few  sons  of  professional  men 
among  them,  but  in  a  large  majority  of  cases  their  fathers 
are  officers,  either  active  or  retired. 

Their  system  of  education  in  theory  is  excellent,  and 
should  turn  out  well-equipped  officers,  but  one  weak 
point  is  that  a  candidate  with  sufficient  "pull "  is  accepted 
at  the  higher  institutions  without  being  required  to  pass 
through  the  training  schools,  and  the  preliminary  exam- 
ination is  made  easy  for  him  in  proportion  to  the  amount 
of  influence  he  possesses.  Such  a  course  must,  not  in- 
frequently, result  in  placing  men  in  responsible  positions 
who  are  totally  unqualified  for  the  office.  The  strict  dis- 
cipline and  high  standing  which  are  so  characteristic  of 
the  naval  schools  of  Germany,  England  and  America, 
are  unknown  quantities  with  Spain.  Such  a  system  of 
favoritism  is  not  well  calculated  to  develop  the  men  best 
fitted  to  handle  the  complicated  military  engines  of  mod- 
ern warfare. 

Character  of  the  People- 
Perhaps  not  another  nation  can  show  such  a  mixture 
of  blood,  made  up  as  it  is  of  descendants  from  the  old 
Iberians,  Celts,  Carthaginians,  Romans,  Vandals,  Suevi> 
Goths  and  Moors. 

They  are  generally  well-formed  and  of  a  dark,  clear 
complexion,  black  hair,  dark  eyes,  sharp  features,  and  of 
dignified  manner.  In  character  they  are  proud,  courte- 
ous, patriotic,  but  frequently  vain,  intolerant  and  vindic- 
tive. As  soldiers  they  have  displayed  marked  courage* 
enterprise  and  endurance. 

History. 

Iberia  was  the  name  given  to  Spain  by  the  ancient 
Greeks,  and  the  country  about  the  mouth  of  the  Guadal- 
quiver  is  generally  understood  to  have  been  the  Tarshish 
of  Scripture.  It  was  early  colonized  by  the  Phoenicians, 
but  little  was  known  of  it  until  the  first  war  between  Rome 


54  THE    PASSING    OF    SPAIN    AND 

and  Carthage,  264  B.  C.,  when  Spanish  troops  served  in 
the  Carthaginian  armies.  Hamilcar,  Hasdrubal  and 
Hannibal  cultivated  the  friendship  of  Spain.  They  en- 
couraged marriages  between  their  soldiers  and  officers 
and  the  native  women,  and  even  Hannibal  married  a 
Spanish  woman.  The  warlike  population  and  the  great 
mineral  wealth  were  -by  these  leaders  turned  to  good 
account  in  their  warfare  with  Rome. 

Hamilcar  founded  New  Carthage,  now  Cartagena. 
After  the  destruction  of  Carthage  by  the  Romans  146 
B.  C.,  Spain  was  conquered  and  became  a  Roman  prov- 
ince, though  insurrections  were  frequent. 

When  Alaric  sacked  Rome  in  409  A.  D.  the  Suevi, 
Alani  and  Vandals  swept  over  Spain  and  brought  it  to 
the  lowest  depth  of  misery.  About  415  the  Visigoths, 
as  Roman  allies,  swept  out  these  tribes  and  established 
an  independent  empire  which  lasted  until  the  fall  of 
Roderick  711  A.  D.,  the  last  of  the  Gothic  kings. 

"  Spain  under  its  Gothic  kings  may  have  been  a  fairly 
well  governed  country,  but  long  before  the  end  came  there 
must  have  been  languor  and  decay  among  its  people. 
Anything  like  a  vigorous  national  resistance  seems  to 
have  been  too  much  for  the  Spaniards,  enervated  as  they 
were  by  long  familiarity  with  Roman  civilization." 

Spain  at  this  time  contained  many  Jews  who  had  done 
much  in  building  up  its  trade  and  industry  with  other 
countries. 

"In  the  old  times  under  Visigothic  rule  these  people 
had  greatly  prospered,  but  the  leniency  that  had  been 
shown  to  them  was  succeeded  by  atrocious  persecution, 
when  the  Visigoths  abandoned  their  Arianism  and  be- 
came orthodox.  The  most  inhuman  ordinances  were 
issued  against  them  —  a  law  was  enacted  condemning 
them  all  to  be  slaves.  It  was  not  to  be  wondered  at  that 
when  the  Saracen  invasion  took  place  the  jews  did 
whatever  they  could  to  promote  its  success.  They,  like 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  55 

the  Arabs,  were  an  Oriental  people;  both  traced  their 
lineage  to  Abraham,  their  common  ancestor;  both  were 
believers  in  the  unity  of  God.  It  was  their  defense  of 
that  doctrine  that  had  brought  upon  them  the  hatred 
of  their  Visigothic  masters."  : 

As  early  as  709  the  Moors  made  forays  into  Spain 
and  discovered  its  fascinating  weakness. 

Count  Julian,  one  of  Roderic's  captains,  feeling  that 
he  had  been  wronged  by  the  king,  sought  revenge,  and 
plotted  with  the  Moslems  for  the  invasion  of  the  country 
and  the  overthrow  of  the  Gothic  power.  The  proposition 
was  referred  to  the  caliph,  who  gave  it  his  approval. 

"  The  Khalif  Alwalid  next  authorized  the  invasion  of 
Europe,  the  conquest  of  Andalusia,  or  the  Region  of  the 
Evening.  Musa,  his  general,  found,  as  had  so  often  been 
the  case  elsewhere,  two  effective  allies,  sectarianism  and 
treason  —  the  Archbishop  of  Toledo  and  Count  Julian, 
the  Gothic  general." 

"  Tarik,  a  lieutenant  of  the  emir,  was  sent  across  the 
Straits  with  the  van  of  the  army.  He  landed  on  the 
rock,  called  in  memory  of  his  name,  Gibraltar,  April, 
A.  D.  711.  In  the  battle  that  ensued,  a  part  of  Roderic's 
troops,  together  with  the  Archbishop  of  Toledo,  consum- 
mated their  treasonable  compact  and  deserted  to  the 
Arabs;  the  rest  were  panic-stricken." 

"  With  great  rapidity,  Tarik,  the  lieutenant  of  Musa, 
pushed  forward  from  the  battle-field  to  Toledo,  and 
thence  northward.  On  the  arrival  of  Musa  the  reduc- 
tion of  the  Spanish  peninsula  was  completed,  and  the 
wreck  of  the  Gothic  army  driven  beyond  the  Pyrenees 
into  France.  Considering  the  conquest  of  Spain  as  only 
the  first  step  in  his  victories,  he  announced  his  intention 
of  forcing  his  way  into  Italy  and  preaching  the  unity  of 
God  in  the  Vatican.  Thence  he  would  march  to  Con- 

*  Draper's  "Conflict  of  Science  and  Religion." 


56  THE    PASSING   OF    SPAIN    AND 

stantinople,  and  having  put  an  end  to  the  Roman  Empire 
and  Christianity,  would  pass  into  Asia  and  lay  his  victo- 
rious sword  on  the  footstool  of  the  khalif  at  Damascus. 

"  But  this  was  not  to  be.  Musa,  envious  of  his  lieutenant 
Tarik,  had  treated  him  with  great  indignity.  The  friends 
of  Tarik  at  the  court  of  the  khalif  found  means  of  retalia- 
tion. An  envoy  from  Damascus  arrested  Musa  in  his 
camp;  he  was  carried  before  his  sovereign,  disgraced  by 
a  public  whipping,  and  died  of  a  broken  heart. 

"  Under  other  leaders,  however,  the  Saracen  conquest 
of  France  was  attempted.  In  a  preliminary  campaign 
the  country  from  the  mouth  of  the  Garonne  to  that  of 
the  Loire  was  secured.  Then  Abderrahman,  the  Saracen 
commander,  dividing  his  forces  into  two  columns,  with 
one  on  the  east,  passed  the  Rhone  and  laid  siege  to 
Aries.  A  Christian  army,  attempting  the  relief  of  the 
place,  was  defeated  with  heavy  loss.  His  western  column, 
equally  successful,  passed  the  Dordogne,  defeated  another 
Christian  army,  inflicting  on  it  such  dreadful  loss  that 
according  to  its  own  fugitives  '  God  alone  could  number 
the  slain.'  All  Central  France  was  now  overrun ;  the 
banks  of  the  Loire  were  reached;  the  churches  and  mon- 
asteries were  despoiled  of  their  treasures. 

"  The  progress  of  the  invaders  was  at  length  stopped 
by  Charles  Martel  (A.  D.  732).  Between  Tours  and 
Poictiers  a  great  battle,  which  lasted  seven  days,  was 
fought.  Abderrahman  was  killed,  the  Saracens  retreated 
and  soon  afterward  were  compelled  to  re-cross  the  Pyre- 
nees. The  banks  of  the  Loire,  therefore,  mark  the 
boundary  of  the  Mohammedan  advance  in  Western 
Europe.* 

It  was  not  the  generalship  of  Charles  Martel  which 
saved  Europe  from  further  invasion  so  much  as  the 
internal  dissensions  that  sprang  up  among  the  Saracens 
themselves.  During  the  tenth  century  violent  civil  wars 

*Draper's  Intellectual  Development  of  Europe. 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF   AMERICA*  57 

occurred  among  them,  and  at  one  time  there  were  three 
caliphs  residing  in  as  many  different  cities.  Christian 
Europe  found  its  safeguard  in  the  quarrels  of  the  rival 
potentates.  After  the  battle  of  Tours  the  Saracens  fell 
back  to  the  peninsula,  the  greater  part  of  which  they 
occupied  and  brought  into  a  high  state  of  cultivation. 

Cordova  was  the  capital  city  of  their  caliph,  who 
declared  himself  independent. 

For  many  years  the  Spanish  Moors  represented  the 
highest  advance  of  culture  and  intelligence. 

History  has  done  scant  justice  to  them,  and  science, 
especially  medicine,  astronomy  and  chemistry,  owes  them 
a  large  debt  of  gratitude. 

Cordova. 

"Scarcely  had  the  Arabs  become  firmly  settled  in 
Spain  when  they  commenced  a  brilliant  career.  The 
Emirs  of  Cordova  distinguished  themselves  as  patrons  of 
learning,  and  set  an  example  of  refinement  strongly  con- 
trasting with  the  condition  of  the  native  European 
princes.  Cordova,  under  their  administration,  boasted  of 
more  than  two  hundred  thousand  houses  and  more  than 
a  million  of  inhabitants.  After  sunset,  a  man  might  walk 
through  it  in  a  straight  line  for  ten  miles  by  the  light  of 
the  public  lamps.  Seven  hundred  years  after  this  time 
there  was  not  so  much  as  one  public  lamp  in  London. 
Cordova's  streets  were  solidly  paved.  In  Paris,  centuries 
subsequently,  whoever  stepped  over  his  threshold  on  a 
rainy  day  stepped  up  to  his  ankles  in  mud." 

"  In  whatever  direction  we  may  look  we  meet,  in  the 
various  pursuits  of  peace  and  war,  of  letters  and  of 
science,  Saracenic  vestiges.  Our  dictionaries  tell  us 
that  such  is  the  origin  of  admiral,  alchemy,  alcohol,  alge- 
bra, cotton,  and  hundreds  of  other  words." 


5§  THE    PASSING    OF    SPAIN    AND 

Globes  in  Schools. 

"Almaimon,  A.  D.  830,  had  ascertained  the  size  of  the 
earth  from  the  measurement  of  a  degree  on  the  shore  of 
the  Red  Sea.  While  the  cities  of  Europe  were  asserting 
the  flatness  of  the  earth,  the  Spanish  Moors  were  teach- 
ing geography  in  their  common  schools  from  globes. 
They  also  promoted  many  important  branches  of  indus- 
try, improved  the  manufacture  of  textile  fabrics,  earthen- 
ware, iron  and  steel.  The  Toledo  sword  blades  were 
everywhere  prized  for  their  temper.  They  also  intro- 
duced inventions  of  a  more  ominous  kind—  gunpowder 
and  artillery.  The  cannon  they  used  appears  to  have 
been  made  of  wrought-iron.  But  perhaps  they  more 
than  compensated  for  these  by  the  introduction  of  the 
mariner's  compass. 

'  I  join,  as  doubtless  all  natural  philosophers  will  do,  in 
the  pious  prayer  of  Alhazen  (noo  A.  D.)  that  in  the 
day  of  judgment  the  All  Merciful  will  take  pity  on  the 
soul  of  Abur-Raihan  because  he  was  the  first  of  the  race 
of  men  to  construct  a  table  of  specific  gravity,  and  I  will 
ask  the  same  for  Alhazen  himself  since  he  was  the  first 
to  trace  the  curvilinear  path  of  the  ray  of  light  through 
the  air. 

Darwin's  Theory  Not  New. 

"  He  upheld  the  affirmation  of  those  who  said  man  in 
his  progress  passes  through  a  definite  succession  of  states, 
not,  however,  'that  he  was  once  a  bull  and  was  then 
changed  to  an  ass  and  afterward  into  a  horse,  and  after 
that  into  an  ape,  and  finally  became  a  man.'  This,  he 
says,  is  only  a  misrepresentation  by  the  'common  peo- 
ple' of  what  is  really  meant.  The  'common  people' 
who  withstood  Alhazen  have  representatives  among;  us 
to-day." 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  59 

Jewish  Trade. 

"  From  Barcelona  and  other  ports  an  immense  trade 
with  the  Levant  was  maintained,  but  it  was  mainly  in  the 
hands  of  the  Jews,  who,  from  the  first  invasion  of  Spain 
by  Musa,  had  ever  been  the  firm  allies  of  the  Arabs.  In 
the~3ays~~of  their  prosperity  they  maintained  a  merchant 
marine  of  more  than  a  thousand  ships.  With  Constanti- 
nople alone  they  maintained  a  great  trade.  It  ramified 
from  the  Black  Sea  and  East  Mediterranean  into  the  in- 
terior of  Asia  to  reach  the  ports  of  India  and  China,  and 
extended  along  the  African  coast  as  far  as  Madagascar. 
As  on  so  many  other  occasions,  on  these  affairs  they 
have  left  their  traces.  The  smallest  weight  they  used  in 
trade  was  a  grain  of  barley,  four  of  which  were  equal  to 
one  sweet  pea,  called  in  Arabic,  carat.  We  still  use  the 
grain  as  our  unit  of  weight,  and  still  speak  of  gold  as 
being  so  many  carats  fine. 

"In  the  middle  of  the  tenth  century  they  were  using 
bills  of  exchange  and  writing  treatises  on  the  principles 
of  trade  and  commerce."'1 

Pelayo. 

Northern  Spain,  with  its  broken  surface,  offers  many 
opportunities  for  strong,  defensive  positions,  where  com- 
paratively weak  forces  may  hold  out  against  superior 
numbers.  It  is  here,  that  in  all  ages,  the  defeated,  or 
those  who  were  too  independent  to  yield,  have  fled,  and 
to-day  the  land  is  inhabited  by  their  descendants,  the 
Basques,  an  extremely  brave,  hardy  and  liberty-loving 
people.  It  was  to  this  broken,  mountainous  region  that 
the  Christians,  under  the  leadership  of  Pelayo,  fled  from 
the  Saracen  invader,  seeking  refuge  in  the  wilds  of 
Asturias.  They  found  in  the  Cave  of  Covadonga  a  safe 
retreat,  from  which  they  repulsed  the  Moors  with  terrible 

*  Intellectual  Development  of  Europe. 


6O  THE    PASSING    OF    SPAIN    AND 

slaughter  in  717.  "In  Christian  Spain  the  fame  of  the 
single  battle  will  endure  as  long  as  time  shall  last;  and 
'  La  Cueva  de  Covadinga,'  the  cradle  of  the  Monarchy, 
may  be  one  of  the  proudest  spots  on  the  soil  of  the 
peninsula."  The  fame  of  the  leader  and  the  safe  retreat 
attracted  other  Christians,  and  under  the  wise  and 
cautious  leadership  of  Pelayo  they  gradually  descended 
into  the  plains  and  valleys  and  annexed  the  territory  as 
fast  as  it  was  abandoned  by  the  Moslems.  From  this 
feeble  germ  grew  the  kingdom  of  Leon. 

Navarre. 

South  of  the  Pyrenees  and  bordering  on  the  Bay  of 
Biscay,  at  the  beginning  of  the  tenth  century,  was  one  of 
the  most  easily  defended  portions  of  the  peninsula.  The 
inhabitants  had  yielded  a  nominal  obedience  to  the 
Goths,  the  Moslems  or  the  Franks,  as  either  party  rose  to 
power,  but  about  the  year  900  Sancho  declared  it  inde- 
pendent and  founded  the  kingdom  of  Navarre.  Through 
his  marriage  connections,  diplomacy,  and  skill  as  a 
general  he  was  able  to  extend  his  boundaries,  and  took 
in  a  large  part  of  what  afterward  became  the  kingdom  of 
Aragon.  The  little  kingdom  of  Navarre  is  famous  as 
having  furnished  one  of  France's  greatest  rulers, 
Henry  IV. 

The  dissensions  among  the  Moors  and  the  rise  of 
Charlemagne  lost  them  their  possessions  in  France. 
Allying  himself  with  the  defeated  faction  of  the  Moslems, 
Charlemagne  pushed  his  boundaries  as  far  south  into 
Spain  as  the  Ebro  river.  One  of  his  armies  was  com- 
pelled to  retreat,  and  suffered  a  severe  defeat  (778)  at 
Roncesvalles,  where  the  celebrated  Paladin,  Roland,  or 
Orlando,  of  historic  myth,  was  killed. 

By  950,  in  spite  of  disorder,  factional  quarrels  and 
petty  strife,  the  Christian  kingdoms  were  well  established 
in  the  northern  half  of  the  peninsula.  Their  importance 
was  sufficiently  felt  by  the  Moslems  to  secure  to  them 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  6 1 

treaties  and  alliances.  For  the  next  five  hundred  years 
the  history  of  Spain  is  a  complex  and  monotonous  recital 
of  the  little  wars  of  little  states,  insurrections  of  ambitious 
leaders  of  factions,  broken  promises  and  petty  jealousies. 
The  Moslems  and  Christians,  alike,  were  divided  into 
numerous  rival  factions,  and  the  defeated  on  either  side 
was  glad  to  ally  himself,  for  the  time  being,  with  the  pre- 
vailing power  of  the  other  religion  in  an  attack  upon  his 
own  brother  in  the  faith. 

It  was  by  the  marriage  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  that 
several  of  the  larger  Christian  kingdoms  of  Spain  came 
to  be  united  in  purpose,  and  under  a  strong  religious 
stimulus  rallied  in  opposition  to  the  Saracens. 

Synopsis  of  Events  Contemporary  with  this  Period. 

A.  D. 

9.  The  Germans  under  Arminius  inflict  an  over 
whelming  defeat  on  the  Romans  under  Varus 
which  secures  the  independence  of  the  German 
States.  Augustus  Caesar  Emperor  of  Rome. 

43.  Romans  commence  the  conquest  of  Britain. 
Claudius  was  then  Emperor  of  Rome  and  the 
inhabitants  of  England,  Celts. 

64.  First  persecution  of  the  Christians  at  Rome  un- 
der Nero. 

325  ?     Council  of  Nicaea  adopts  the  Nicaean  creed. 

330.  Constantine  makes  Constantinople  the  seat  of  the 
Roman  Empire  instead  of  Rome. 

364-365.  The  Roman  Empire  is  divided,  Valentinian 
taking  the  Empire  of  the  West  and  Valens  the 
East. 

375-395.  Yielding  to  attacks  from  the  Huns,  the  Goths 
are  allowed  to  pass  the  Danube  and  settle  in 
Roman  provinces.  They  soon  engage  in  war 
with  the  Romans  and  destroy  Emperor  Valens 


62  THE    PASSING    OF    SPAIN    AND 

A.  D. 

and    his   army.     Finally   subdued    by    Emperor 
Theodosius. 

410.  Alaric  king  of  the  Visigoths  captures  the  city  of 
Rome. 

414.  Spain  invaded  by  the  Visigoths.  Britain  aban- 
doned by  the  Roman  Empire  of  the  West. 

451.  Attila  the  king  of  the  Huns,  called  "  The  Scourge 
of  God,"  checked  at  the  battle  of  Chalons,  France, 
by  the  allied  Goth  and  Roman  armies. 

455-582.  Anglo-Saxons  invade  England  and  found  petty 
kingdoms. 

476.  The  Empire  of  the  West  crushed  and  extin- 
guished by  Odoacer,  who  becomes  the  first  bar- 
barian ruler  of  Italy. 

533-568.  Justinian,  Emperor  of  Constantinople,  con- 
quers Italy  and  northern  Africa;  issues  "Code  of 
Justinian,"  which  formed  the  basis  of  the  law  of 
the  empire  for  centuries,  and  has  had  great  influ- 
ence on  the  law  of  all  nations  with  which  the 
empire  came  in  contact. 

622.  Mohammed  driven  from  Mecca.  This  constitutes 
the  Hegira  or  "  Flight,"  from  which  date  Moham- 
medans reckon  their  time. 

632.      Mohammed  becomes  supreme  in  Arabia. 

651.  The  Mohammedans  complete  the  conquest  of 
Persia. 

709.  Mohammedans  complete  the  conquest  of  northern 
Africa  and  plan  the  invasion  of  Spain. 

768-814.  Reign  of  Charlemagne.  His  empire  extended 
into  Spain  as  far  as  the  Ebro ;  into  Germany  as 
far  as  the  Elbe ;  and  into  Austria  nearly  to 
Vienna. 

"  In  a  life  restlessly  active  we  see  him  reform- 
ing the  coinage,  establishing  the  legal  divisions 
of  money,  gathering  about  him  the  learned  of 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  63 

A.  D. 

every  country,  founding  schools  and  collecting 
libraries,  and  trying  to  harmonize  the  discordant 
codes  of  Barbarian  and  Roman  law." 

786.  Accession  of    Haroun  al-Raschid,  famous  Caliph 
of  Bagdad. 

787.  Danes  invade  England. 

800.  Accession  of  Egbert,  the  first  to  call  himself 
"  King  of  the  English." 

871-900.  Reign  of  Alfred  the  Great. 

91 1.  The  Northman  Hrolf  (Duke  Rollo)  invades  France 
and  secures  from  its  king  the  province  called  after 
them,  Normandy,  and  the  people  and  their  desend- 
ants,  Normans. 

1017.    Canute  becomes  king  of  England  and  Denmark. 

1041.    Edward  the  Confessor  king  of  England. 

1060.  Battle  of  Hastings.  William,  duke  of  Normandy, 
defeats  Harold,  last  Saxon  king  of  England,  and 
becomes  William  I  of  England,  and  first  of  the 
Norman  dynasty. 

1096.  First  Crusade.  Peter  the  Hermit,  its  apostle; 
Godfrey  de  Bouillon,  Defender  of  the  Holy 
Sepulchre;  Robert,  duke  of  Normandy  first  son 
of  William  the  Conqueror;  Tancred;  and  Bald- 
win, brother  of  Godfrey  de  Bouillon,  were  the 
chief  leaders.  Jerusalem  captured.  "  So  terrible, 
it  is  said,  was  the  carnage  which  followed,  that  the 
horses  of  the  Crusaders  rode  up  to  the  Mosque  of 
Omar  through  a  stream  of  blood;  infants  were 
seized  by  their  feet  and  dashed  against  the  walls 
or  hurled  over  the  battlements,  while  the  Jews 
were  all  burned  alive  in  their  synagogue.  In  the 
midst  of  these  horrors  Godfrey  entered  the  Church 
of  the  Sepulchre  clothed  in  a  robe  of  pure  white, 
barefooted  and  bareheaded,  and  knelt  at  the  tomb 
to  offer  his  thanksgiving  for  the  Divine  Goodness 


64  THE    PASSING  OF    SPAIN    AND 

A.  D. 

that  had  granted  the  realization  of  the  yearning 
of  their  hearts." 

1 140.    Feuds  in  Italy  between  the  Guelfsand  Ghibellines. 

1 146.  Second  Crusade.  St.  Bernard  its  popular  preacher 
as  Peter  the  Hermit  had  been  of  the  first.  Cru- 
sade a  failure. 

1154.  Henry  II,  king  of  England,  first  of  the  Planta- 
genets.  Thomas  a  Becket,  Archbishop  of  Can- 
terbury. First  Saxon  since  the  Conquest  to  hold 
high  office. 

1189-1199.  Reign  of  Richard  I.  Third  Crusade  ;  Rich- 
ard and  Philip  take  part.  Saladin  had  captured 
Jerusalem  88  years  after  Godfrey  had  been 
proclaimed  "  Defender  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre." 
He  treated  the  captives  with  marked  leniency 
considering  the  custom  of  the  times.  He  held 
Jerusalem  in  spite  of  the  Third  Crusade,  which 
resulted  in  a  truce  by  which  the  pilgrims  for  3 
years  and  8  months  might  visit  the  Holy  Sepul- 
chre, untaxed. 

1 2 12.  Children's  Crusade;  50,000  children  perish  or  are 
sold  into  captivity. 

1215.  The  barons  and  freeholders  of  England  compel 
John  to  sign  Magna  Charta.  This  was  a  formal 
acknowledgment  by  the  crown  of  the  rights  which 
for  many  years  had*  been  claimed  by  the  people. 

1346.  War  between  France  and  England.  Edward  III 
gains  a  decided  victory  at  Crecy.  The  blind  king 
of  Bohemia,  fighting  for  France,  was  slain,  to- 
gether with  the  flower  of  the  French  chivalry. 
The  Black  Prince,  son  of  Edward  III,  distin- 
guished himself  and  adopted  the  crest  and  motto  — 
"  Ich  Dien,"  of  the  Bohemian  king,  still  worn  by 
the  Prince  of  Wales. 

1356.  English  gain  battle  of  Poictiers  and  take  King 
John  of  France,  prisoner. 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  65 

A.  D. 

1399.  Richard  the  Second  deposed;  Henry  IV,  son  of 
John  of  Gaunt,  first  of  the  Lancaster  line  of  kings, 
crowned. 

1415.  Henry  V  of  England  defeats  the  French  at  battle 
of  Agincourt. 

1420.  Treaty  of  Troyes,  by  which  it  was  agreed  that 
Henry  should  succeed  Charles  VI  of  France  to 
the  French  throne.  The  people  of  France  re- 
fused to  acknowledge  the  treaty. 

1422.  Henry  V  of  England  and  Charles  VI  of  France 
die  and  part  of  France  acknowledge  Henry  VI. 
War  ensues. 

1429.  Joan  of  Arc  victorious  at  Orleans  and  the  French 
Dauphin  crowned  as  Charles  VII  of  France. 

1431.  Joan  of  Arc  tried  before  an  Ecclesiastical  Tribunal 
on  the  charge  of  witchcraft,  and  burned  alive  at 
the  market-place  at  Rouen. 

1452.  English  finally  driven  out  of  France. 

1453.  Mohammed   II  captures  Constantinople  and  the 
Roman  Empire  of  the  East  is  destroyed. 

1455.  Beginning  of  "  War  of  the  Roses  "in  England, 
between  the  Houses  of  York  and  Lancaster. 
The  House  of  York  was  descended,  through  a 
daughter,  from  Lionel,  third  son  of  Edward  III. 
The  House  of  Lancaster  from  John  of  Gaunt, 
fourth  son  of  Edward  III.  The  white  rose  was 
the  badge  of  York,  the  red  rose,  that  of  Lancaster. 

1461.  Henry  VI,  last  of  House  of  Lancaster,  deposed; 
Edward  IV,  first  of  House  of  York,  crowned  by 
aid  of  the  Duke  of  Warwick,  styled  "  King 
Maker." 

1470.  Warwick    restores    Henry   VI.    to    the    English 
throne. 

1471.  Edward  wins  battle  of  New  Barnet,  and  Warwick 
is  defeated  and  slain. 

5 


66  THE    PASSING   OF    SPAIN    AND 


CHAPTER   II. 
Period  of  Discovery  and  Conquest. 

The  great  discoveries  which  form  such  an  important 
part  of  the  history  of  this  epoch  were  in  no  small  measure 
due  to  the  occupation  of  the  east  by  the  Turks,  who,  in 
their  rapid  rise  to  power  had  captured  Constantinople  in 
1453,  gained  command  of  the  eastern  Mediterranean, 
and  thus  cut  off  trade  with  the  Orient  by  the  route  that 
had  made  Venice  and  Genoa  so  rich  and  famous.  The 
invention  of  the  mariner's  compass  and  more  correct 
ideas  of  geography  were  also  potent  factors. 

After  the  union  of  the  numerous  Christian  kingdoms 
of  the  Iberian  Peninsula  and  the  conquest  of  the  Moors, 
the  adventurous  spirit  of  the  age  found  an  outlet  in  the 
discovery  and  conquest  of  the  new  world. 

Reign  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella—  1474-1516. 

In  1469  occurred  the  marriage  of  Ferdinand  and 
Isabella,  the  event  which,  more  than  any  other,  tended 
to  unite  numerous  discordant  factions,  reconcile  opposing 
interests  and  give  to  the  various  Christian  kingdoms  <>f 
Spain  a  religious  unity.  At  one  time  Spain  had  as  many 
as  fourteen  petty  kingdoms,  but  by  the  union  of  Ferdi- 
nand of  Aragon  and  Isabella  of  Castile  and  Leon  about 
all  of  the  Christian  portion  of  the  peninsula  was  united, 
the  chief  exceptions  being  Navarre,  a  petty  kingdom  on 
the  north,  and  Portugal,  which  was  then  independent. 
At  the  time  of  the  marriage  neither  of  the  parties  were 
reigning  monarchs,  they  themselver  were  rival  claimants 
to  a  little  kingdom,  and  the  possessions  falling  to  them 
by  inheritance  were  trivial  and  insignificant  compared 
with  those  acquired  later  by  conquest  or  discovery. 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  67 

Isabella  was  the  daughter  of  John  of  Castile,  and  a 
lineal  descendant  of  the  famous  English  "John  of  Gaunt," 
Duke  of  Lancaster,  from  whom  the  Lancastrian  kings 
of  England  were  descended.  On  the  death  of  her 
father,  her  brother,  Henry  IV,  became  king  of  Castile, 
and  afterward  declared  her  his  lawful  heir.  Numerous 
candidates  for  her  hand  appeared,  among  whom  is  said 
to  have  been  the  Duke  of  Gloucester,  afterward  Richard 
III  of  England.  She  became  queen  of  Castile  and  Leon 
upon  the  death  of  her  brother  Henry  in  1474.  It  was 
claimed  even  then  by  Ferdinand  that  he  should  have 
been  king  of  Castile,  on  the  plea  that  he  was  the  nearest 
male  heir  to  Henry  IV,  and  that  under  the  Salic  law  a 
female  could  not  inherit.  His  claim  was  not  urged 
strongly,  as  the  sovereigns  were  engaged  in  suppressing 
an  insurrection,  and  had  as  much  as  they  could  do  to 
make  good  their  joint  claim  to  the  throne. 

The  question  is  interesting,  and  occurs  later  in  Spanish 
history  in  the  claims  of  the  Carlists. 

Having:  reduced  the  affairs  within  their  own  kingdom 

O  O 

to  order,  the  sovereigns  turned  their  attention  to  their 
Moorish  neighbors  in  Granada,  and  after  a  desultory  war 
of  ten  years  captured  Granada  and  overthrew  the  Moor- 
ish power  in  Spain  forever. 

Under  the  joint  sovereigns  the  country  continued  to 
thrive  until  the  death  of  Isabella  in  1504,  when  some 
trouble  arose  concerning  the  succession  to  Castile,  but 
Ferdinand  was  successful,  and  when  he  died  in  1516  had 
acquired  possession  of  all  Spain. 

The  chief  events  of  their  reign  were  the  institution 
of  the  Inquisition,  the  Conquest  of  Granada  from  the 
Moors,  the  Discovery  of  America,  the  Expulsion  of  the 
Jews,  the  Expulsion  of  the  Unbaptized  Moors,  and  the 
adoption  of  the  pope's  iine  dividing  the  Spanish  and 
Portuguese  colonies. 

The  Portuguese  discovered  and  colonized  the  western 


68  THE    PASSING    OF    SPAIN    AND 

coast  of  Africa,  the  islands  adjacent,  and  doubled  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope.  Upon  the  return  of  Columbus  in 
1493  the  Spanish  and  Portuguese  claims  were  likely  to 
conflict.  The  Pope  claimed  sovereignty  over  all  heathen 
lands,  and  settled  the  question  May,  1493,  by  drawing 
an  imaginary  line  north  and  south  one  hundred  leagues 
west  of  the  Azores  Islands,  giving  to  Spain  everything 
discovered  and  to  be  discovered  west  of  that  line.  This 
solution  was  based  on  the  supposition  that  the  earth  was 
flat.  It  worked  well  until  the  circumnavigation  of  Africa 
discredited  the  old  theories  and  enhanced  the  value  of 
trade  with  the  Spice  islands  of  the  East  Indies. 

Isabella  had  a  powerful  mind,  and  it  was  largely  due 
to  her  guiding  hand  that  Spain  suddenly  took  rank 
among  the  great  kingdoms.  Her  daughter,  Catherine  of 
Aragon,  was  the  first  wife  of  Henry  VIII.  of  England, 
and  mother  of  Queen  Mary.  Another  daughter,  Joanna, 
married  Philip  of  Austria,  son  of  the  emperor  of  Ger- 
many. Her  character  is  marred,  however,  by  two  traits  — 
intolerance  and  bigotry  —  which  seem  characteristic  of 
the  race. 

The  unbelieving  Jews  in  Spain  were  a  source  of  great 
grief  to  her.  Next  to  them  were  the  infidel  Moors. 
Although  Granada  had  surrendered  under  a  solemn 
pledge  of  civil  and  religious  liberty,  she  did  not  hesitate 
to  break  it,  for  to  her  devout  soul  heresy  was  the  greatest 
of  all  evils.  It  was  for  the  suppression  of  these  evils  that 
she  gave  her  consent  to  the  institution  of  a  Court  of 
Inquisition. 

Inquisition. 

"  Under  the  influence  of  Torquemada,  the  confessor  of 
Queen  Isabella,  that  princess  solicited  a  bull  from  the 
Pope  for  the  establishment  of  the  Inquisition.  The 
method  had  been  tried  before.  A  bull  was  accordingly 
issued  in  November,  1478,  for  the  detection  and  sup- 


THE   ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  69 

pression  of  heresy.  Anonymous  accusations  were  re- 
ceived. The  accused  was  not  confronted  by  witnesses. 
Torture  was  relied  upon  for  conviction.  Llorente,  the 
historian  of  the  Inquisition,  computes  that  Torquemada 
and  his  collaborators  in  the  course  of  eighteen  years 
burned  at  the  stake  10,220  persons  and  otherwise  pun- 
ished 97,321."* 

Expulsion  of  the  Jews. 

Spain  at  that  time  contained  many  Jews  and  Saracens 
who  would  not  embrace  the  Christian  religion.  Accord- 
ingly, March  30,  1492,  an  edict  for  the  expulsion  of  the 
Jews  was  issued,  and  all  were  ordered  to  leave  the  realm 
by  the  end  of  July  of  that  year. 

"  They  might  sell  their  effects,  but  could  not  carry 
gold  or  silver  away  with  them.  Nobody  would  purchase 
what  could  be  got  for  nothing  after  July.  Whoever 
helped  them  was  punished.  Of  the  banished  persons 
some  made  their  way  into  Africa,  some  into  Italy  —  the 
latter  carrying  with  them  into  Naples  ship  fever,  which 
destroyed  twenty  thousand  in  that  city.  Some  reached 
Turkey;  a  few  England.  Thousands,  especially  the 
mothers,  the  infants,  and  old  people,  died  by  the  way."  t 

This  action  against  the  Jews  was  soon  followed  by  one 
against  the  Moors. 

Expulsion  of  the  Unbaptized  Moors. 

"An  edict  was  issued  February,  1502,  ordering  all  un- 
baptized  Moors  in  the  kingdoms  of  Castile  and  Leon  to 
leave  the  country  by  the  end  of  April.  They  might  sell 
their  property,  but  not  take  away  any  gold  or  silver. 
They  were  forbidden  to  emigrate  to  the  Mohammedan 
dominions.  The  penalty  of  disobedience  was  death. 
Their  condition  was  worse  than  the  Jews,  who  had  been 

*  "  Science  and  Religion." 

f  Intellectual  Development  of  Europe. 


7O  THE    PASSING   OF    SPAIN    AND 

permitted  to  go  where  they  pleased.  The  intolerance  of 
the  Spanish  doctrine  is  shown  by  its  assertion  that  the 
government  would  be  justified  in  taking  the  life  of  all 
Moors  because  of  their  infidelity.  Granada  had  surren- 
dered under  the  solemn  guaranty  of  the  full  enjoyment 
of  civil  and  religious  liberty." ' 

By  this  action  Spain  had  deprived  herself  of  citizens 
that  could  have  been  made  of  inestimable  value  to  her. 
By  expelling  the  Jews  they  lost  much  needed  capital  and, 
more  valuable  still,  the  intellect  and  training  that  had 
made  that  capital  available  and  useful  to  them.  With 
the  expulsion  of  the  Saracens  she  was  deprived  of  the 
captains  of  industry  and  her  manufacturing  and  agri- 
cultural interests  have  not  yet  recovered  from  the  blow. 
Spain  at  that  time  was  supposed  to  have  a  population  of 
more  than  thirty  millions;  to-day  she  has  about  half  that. 
Her  very  discoveries  sapped  her  vital  powers.  They 
cost  her  the  best  blood  of  her  young  men,  lost  by  fever, 
shipwreck,  and  battle;  they  discouraged  industry  by 
painting  larger  and  quicker  returns  for  courage  and  dar- 
ing; they  brought  slave  labor  and  all  the  evils  attendant 
in  its  train.  She  never,  like  England,  made  her  colonies 
a  part  of  herself,  but  pitiless  in  her  exaction,  drained 
their  resources  to  the  last  drop  and  preserved  her  hold  on. 
them  only  by  force  and  not  by  any  sense  of  loyalty  to  her. 

Synopsis  of  History  Contemporary  with  This  Reign. 
A.  D. 

1483.  Edward  IV,  first  Yorkist  king,  dies;  his  son  Ed- 
V  reigns  a  few  months  and  is  put  aside  by  his 
uncle,  Richard  III.     Luther  and  Raphael  born; 
(d.  Luther,  1546;   Raphael,  1520.) 

1484.  Zwingli,  great  Swiss  reformer,  born.     (d.  1531.) 

1485.  Battle  of  "Bosworth  Field.     Death  of  Richard  III. 
Accession  of  Henry  VII,  first  Tudor  of  England. 

*  Draper's  Conflict  of  Science  and  Religion. 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  JI 

A.  D. 

1497.    Cabot,  in  employ  of  Henry  VII,  discovers  North 

America.     Vasco  di  Gama,  Portuguese  navigator, 

passes  around  Cape  of  Good   Hope  to  the  East 
Indies.     Melancthon  born.     (d.  1560.) 
1500.    Cabral  of  Portugal  discovers   Brazil.     Charles  V, 

son  of  Philip  of  Burgundy  and  Joanna  of  Spain, 

grandson  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  born. 
1503.  Gonsalo  de  Cordova,  the  great  Spanish  general, 

defeats  the  French  at  Naples  and  conquers  it  for 

Spain. 
1505-    John  Knox,  the  Scottish  religious  reformer,  born. 

(d.  1572.) 
1509.    Death  of  Henry  VII.     Accession  of  Henry  VIII. 

Calvin  born.     (^.1564.)     Portugal  makes  good  her 

claim  to  nearly  all  the  West  Indies. 
1513.    Battle  of  Flodden.     Defea^of  the  Scotch.     Death 

James  IV  of  Scotland. 

Charles  I —  1516-1556.    First  of  the  Spanish  House  of 

Hapsburg. 

Charles  I  of  Spain — Charles  V  of  Germany  —  was 
born  at  Ghent  February  24,  1500,  and  united  in  his  person 
the  claims  of  four  royal  lines. 

First  —  Through  his  father,  Philip  of  Austria. 

Second.  —  Through  his  father's  mother,  daughter  of 
Charles  the  Bold,  which  gave  him  a  claim  to  the 
Netherlands. 

Third.  —  Through  his  grandfather,  Emperor  Maxi- 
milian First,  a  good  claim  to  the  imperial  crown  of 
Germany  at  the  next  election. 

Fourth. — Through  his  mother,  Joanna,  daughter  of 
Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  he  became  heir  to  Spanish 
possessions. 

He   succeeded  to  the   Netherlands   in    1506,  on  the 


72  THE    PASSING    OF    SPAIN    AND 

death  of  Ferdinand,  his  grandfather;  to  his  Austrian 
possessions  in  1519,  on  the  death  of  his  grandfather 
Maximilian,  and  the  same  year  was  elected  to  the  impe- 
rial crown.  Spain  was  only  a  small  part  of  his  empire, 
and  never  the  choicest  part.  Before  his  death  the 
Spanish  flag  floated  over  Florida,  New  Mexico,  Mexico, 
nearly  all  of  South  America  except  Brazil,  the  Philippine 
Islands,  and  all  the  West  Indies.  Throughout  his  reign 
he  was  kept  busy  defending  from  ambitious  rivals  the 
frontier  of  his  extensive  dominion.  At  last  in  1556, 
broken  in  health  and  weighed  down  by  the  burden  of 
his  responsibilities,  he  voluntarily  abdicated,  giving  up 
the  Netherlands,  Spain  and  its  possessions  to  his  son, 
Philip  II;  Germany  and  his  Austrian  possessions  to  his 
brother  Ferdinand.  It  was  agreed  between  the  brothers 
Charles  and  Ferdinand  that  in  the  event  of  the  male  line 
of  either  family  becoming  extinct,  the  other  family  should 
succeed  to  its  territorial  possessions.  This  was  one  of 
the  claims  that  later  made  even  more  complex  the  question 
of  "  Spanish  Succession." 

Charles  retired  to  a  monastery,  where  he  died  Sep- 
tember, 1558.  He  was  by  long  odds  the  ablest  and  most 
powerful  monarch  of  the  sixteenth  century,  and  it  was  in 
his  reign  that  Spain  reached  the  highest  point  of  her 
material  development.  For  him  Pizarro  conquered 
Peru,  Cortez  gave  him  Mexico,  Magellan  circumnavi- 
gated the  globe,  and  the  great  wealth  of  the  New  World 
poured  into  his  treasury. 

Among  his  contemporaries  were  Henry  VIII  of 
England,  Francis  I  of  France,  whom  he  defeated  and 
captured  at  the  battle  of  Pavia ;  Frederick  Barbarossa  of 
Algiers,  whom  he  defeated  and  compelled  to  release  thou- 
sands of  Christian  slaves;  Luther,  Melanchthon,  Zwingli 
and  Erasmus,  leaders  of  the  Reformation  then  starting, 
and  Solyman  the  Magnificent,  emperor  of  Turkey. 

Two  important  events  having  a  bearing  on  religious 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  73 

matters  were  the  founding  of  the  Order  of  Jesuits  and 
the  Council  of  Trent. 

Order  of  Jesuits.    Loyola. 

In  1521  the  French  attempted  the  invasion  of  Spain. 
They  captured  the  fortress  of  Palpuma,  but  were  quickly 
driven  out,  and  the  incident  has  no  military  importance. 
In  another  way,  however,  it  has  had  a  marked  effect  on 
the  history  of  the  world.  At  the  capture  of  this  fortress, 
Ignatius  de  Loyola,  a  gallant  Spanish  soldier,  was  severely 
wounded  and  taken  prisoner.  "  His  constitution  was 
shattered,  and  he  was  doomed  to  be  a  cripple  for  life. 
The  palm  of  strength,  grace  and  skill  in  knightly  exer- 
cises was  no  longer  for  him.  A  new  vision  then  arose 
in  his  mind,  which  those  who  know  how  close  was  the 
relation  between  religion  and  chivalry  in  Spain  will  be 
at  no  loss  to  understand.  He  would  still  be  a  soldier; 
he  would  still  be  a  knight-errant;  but  the  soldier  and 
knight-errant  of  the  spouse  of  Christ.  His  restless  spirit 
led  him  to  the  Syrian  deserts  and  to  the  Chapel  of  the 
Holy  Sepulchre.  His  activity  and  zeal  bore  down  all 
opposition;  and  under  his  rule  the  Order  of  Jesuits 
began  to  exist  and  grow  rapidly  to  the  full  measure  of 
his  gigantic  powers. 

The  great  outbreak  of  Protestantism  in  one  part  of 
Christendom  had  produced  an  equally  violent  outbreak 
of  Catholic  zeal  in  another.  Two  reformations  were 
pushed  on  at  once  with  equal  energy  and  effect:  a  refor- 
mation of  doctrine  in  the  North,  a  reformation  of  man- 
ners and  discipline  in  the  South.  In  this  great  Catholic 
reaction  Ignatius  de  Loyola  bore  the  same  part  which 
Luther  bore  in  the  great  Protestant  movement."* 

There  had  been  numerous  organizations  within  the 
Latin  Church  —  like  the  Templars,  Hospitalers  and 

*Macauley's  "Church of  Rome." 


74  THE    PASSING   OF    SPAIN    AND 

Knights,  into  which  military  ideas  entered  largely; 
others,  like  the  Benedictines,  Dominicans  and  Francis- 
cans, were  chiefly  given  spiritual  labors  and  the  educa- 
tion of  the  young. 

The  Jesuit  differed  from  all  these.  The  earlier  asso- 
ciations sought  to  withdraw  from  contact  with  the  world 

O 

and  its  concerns,  to  seek  spiritual  perfection  in  a  retired 
life  of  contemplation  and  prayer  within  the  cloister.  On 
the  contrary,  the  Jesuit  system  was  to  take  religious 
men  from  retirement,  to  bring  them  into  active  inter- 
course with  the  world,  waiving  all  regulations  of  dress  or 
rule,  that  their  members  might  be  free  to  mix  in  any 
company  as  agents  of  the  Order.  The  general  wielded 
almost  unlimited  power;  the  vow  of  obedience  was  taken 
to  him;  the  tenure  of  each  member  depending  upon 
his  will. 

Frequently  in  their  history  they  have  been  engaged 
in  controversy  with  the  Powers  of  Rome,  and  that  gen- 
eral has  stood  toward  the  pope  much  as  one  of  the 
powerful  feudal  leaders  of  the  Middle  Ages  might  towards 
a  weak  sovereign. 

"The  Order  was  established  by  a  bull  of  Paul  III, 
1540,  the  rules  being  that  the  general,  chosen  for  life, 
should  be  obeyed  as  God  ;  that  they  should  vow  poverty, 
chastity,  obedience,  and  go  wherever  they  were  com- 
manded ;  their  obedience  was  to  the  pope,  not  to  the 
Church  —  a  most  politic  distinction,  for  thereby  an  un- 
mistakable responsibility  was  secured.  They  had  no 
regular  hours  of  prayer;  their  duties  were  preaching,  the 
direction  of  consciences,  education.  By  the  Jesuits, 
Rome  penetrated  into  the  remotest  corners  of  the  earth, 
established  links  of  communication  with  her  children 
who  remained  true  to  her  in  the  heart  of  Protestant 
countries,  and,  with  a  far-seeing  policy  for  the  future, 
silently  engrossed  the  education  of  the  young. 

"  There  was  no  guise  under  which  the  Jesuit  might 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  75 

not  be  found  —  a  barefoot  beggar  clothed  in  rags ;  a 
learned  professor,  lecturing  gratuitously  to  scientific 
audiences;  a  man  of  the  world,  living  in  profusion  and 
princely  extravagance ;  there  have  been  Jesuits  the 
wearers  of  crowns.  There  were  no  places  into  which 
they  did  not  find  their  way ;  a  visitor  to  one  of  the  loyal 
old  families  of  England  could  never  be  sure  but  that 

c? 

there  was  a  Jesuit  hidden  in  the  garret  or  secreted  behind 
the  wainscot  of  the  bedroom.  They  were  the  advisers  of 
the  leading  men  of  the  age,  sat  in  the  cabinets  of  kings, 
and  were  their  confessors. 

"  With  implicit  and  unquestioning  obedience  to  his 
superior,  like  a  good  soldier,  it  was  the  paramount  duty 
of  the  Jesuit  to  obey  his  orders,  whatever  those  orders 
might  be.  It  was  for  him  to  go,  at  the  summons  of  a 
moment,  with  his  life  in  his  hand,  to  the  very  center  of 
pagan  or  of  reformed  and  revolted  countries,  where  his 
presence  was  death  by  law,  and  execute  the  mission  en- 
trusted to  him.  If  he  succeeded,  it  was  well ;  if  he  should 
fall,  it  was  also  well. 

"In  South  America  they  obtained  a  footing  in  Para- 
guay and  commenced  their  noble  attempt  at  the  civiliza- 
tion of  the  Indians,  bringing  them  into  communities, 
teaching  them  social  usages,  agricultural  arts  and  the 
benefits  arising  to  themselves  and  the  community  from 
labor.  They  gave  them  a  military  organization,  sub- 
divided according  to  the  European  system,  into  the 
customary  arms  —  infantry,  cavalry,  artillery;  they  sup- 
plied them  with  munitions  of  war.  " 

Men  found  by  bitter  experience  that  within  the  silken 
glove  there  was  an  iron  hand.  From  their  general  in 
Rome,  who  was  absolute  commander  of  their  persons 
and  unchallengeable  administrator  of  their  prodigious 
wealth,  down  to  the  humblest  missionary  who  was  wear- 
ing away  his  life  among  the  Andes,  or  on  the  banks  of 
the  Hoang-ho,  or  in  the  solitary  prairies  of  Missouri,  or 


76  THE    PASSING    OF    SPAIN    AND 

under  the  blazing  sun  of  Abyssinia,  whether  he  was  con- 
fessing the  butterfly  ladies  of  Paris,  whispering  sugges- 
tions into  the  ear  of  the  King  of  Spain,  consoling  the 
dying  peasant  in  an  Irish  cabin,  arguing  with  mandarins 
in  the  palace  of  the  Emperor  of  China,  extorting  the 
admiration  of  learned  societies  by  the  profundity  of  his 
philosophy  and  the  brilliancy  of  his  scientific  discoveries, 
whether  he  was  to  be  seen  in  the  exchanges  and  marts 
of  the  great  capitals,  supervising  commercial  operations 
on  a  scale  which  up  to  that  time  had  been  attempted  by 
none  but  the  Jews;  whether  he  was  held  in  an  English 
jail  as  a  suspected  vagabond,  or  sitting  on  the  throne  of 
France ;  whether  he  appeared  as  a  great  landed  pro- 
prietor, the  owner  of  countless  leagues  in  the  remote 
parts  of  India  or  South  America,  or  whether  he  was 
mixing  with  crowds  in  the  streets  of  London  and  insinu- 
ating in  Protestant  ears  the  rights  of  subjects  to  oppose 
and  even  depose  their  monarchs,  or  in  the  villages  of 
Castile  and  Leon  preaching  before  Catholic  peasants 
the  paramount  duty  of  a  good  Christian  implicitly  to- 
obey  the  mandates  of  his  king  —  wherever  the  Jesuit 
was  or  whatever  he  was  doing,  men  universally  felt  that 
the  thing  he  had  in  hand  was  only  auxiliary  to  some 
higher,  some  hidden  design.  This  power  became  at  last 
<o  intolerable  that  the  Jesuits  were  banished  from  France^ 
Spain,  Portugal  and  other  Catholic  countries.* 

Council  of  Trent. 

Upon  the  accession  of  Paul  III  in  1534  to  the  papal 
throne,  energetic  measures  for  church  reform  were  put 
forth. 

In  1545  he  issued  a  bull  summoning  delegates  for 
the  whole  Latin  Church  to  meet  in  council  at  Trent. 
Twenty-five  sessions  in  all  were  held,  ranging,  with  fre- 
quent interruptions,  from  1545  to  1563,  and  during  which 

*  Draper's  "Intellectual  Development  of  Europe." 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  77 

time  three  popes  died.  Most  of  the  enactments  had 
reference  to  church  government,  or  questions  of  theology 
not  especially  interesting  to-day.  Among  other  things  it 
declared  that  Scripture  and  tradition  are  to  be  received 
and  venerated  equally;  that  the  Vulgate  should  be  the 
sole,  authentic  and  standard  Latin  version  of  the  Bible, 
and  gave  it  such  authority  as  to  supersede  the  original 
text.  It  appointed  a  committee  to  investigate  and  re- 
port on  heretical  books.  The  enforcement  of  its  regu- 
lations against  the  Protestants  was  another  source  of 
bitter  strife. 

Battle  of  Pavia—  1525. 

The  title  of  Emperor  of  Germany  was  elective  and 
not  hereditary.  On  the  death  of  Maximilian  numerous 
candidates  appeared,  Francis  I  of  France  and  Charles  I 
of  Spain  being  the  leading  ones.  Henry  VIII  of  Eng- 
land had  promised  his  influence  to  Francis.  Charles  was 
elected  and  the  French  king  believed  Henry  had  played 
him  false.  Soon  after  a  meeting  was  arranged  between 
Henry  and  Charles,  in  which  the  emperor  skillfully 
played  upon  Henry's  dreams  of  enforcing  his  vague 
claims  to  the  throne  of  France,  and  an  alliance  was 
made  in  1522.  The  war  that  followed  was  wholly  to 
the  advantage  of  Spain,  and  Henry,  convinced  that  he 
had  been  outwitted  by  his  cleverer  nephew,  opened  secret 
negotiations  with  Francis  and  lent  him  some  aid.  Pre- 
vious to  this  Francis  had  insulted  and  reduced  to  beg- 
gary the  Duke  of  Bourbon,  Constable  of  France,  who 
went  over  to  the  side  of  the  emperor. 

At  the  battle  of  Pavia,  Bourbon  greatly  distinguished 
himself,  won  a  great  victory  for  Charles,  and  made 
prisoner  his  former  ungrateful  master.  This  victory, 
however,  convinced  Henry  that  he  was  again  on  the 
wrong  side,  and  he  offered  to  join  with  Charles  in  an  in- 
vasion of  France,  pledging  a  large  army  at  his  own 


78  THE    PASSING   OF    SPAIN    AND 

expense.  If  the  war  was  successful  Henry  was  to  be 
crowned  king  of  France  and  to  cede  to  the  emperor  nu- 
merous provinces  thereof,  and  in  addition  give  him  the 
hand  of  his  daughter  Mary.  The  people  of  England 
rose  in  opposition  to  a  tax  levied  to  raise  the  funds  neces- 
sary for  this  invasion.  Charles,  with  little  regard  for  his 
uncle,  made  a  treaty  with  Francis  which  the  French 
king  did  not  hesitate  to  repudiate  once  he  was  safe  at 
home,  urging  that  his  assent  was  given  under  compulsion. 
The  Spanish  army  then,  under  the  leadership  of  Bour- 
bon, attacked  Rome  and  captured  the  city,  1527,  with 
the  loss  of  their  leader.  The  pope  was  now  a  prisoner 
in  the  hands  of  Charles,  and  never,  even  from  the  bar- 
barians, did  Rome  suffer  more  than  at  the  hands  of  her 
Spanish  captors. 

Voyage  of  Magellan. 

"  Ferdinand  Magellan  had  been  in  the  service  of  the 
King  of  Portugal;  but  an  application  he  had  made  for 
an  increase  of  half  a  ducat  a  month  in  his  stipend  having 
been  refused,  he  passed  into  the  service  of  the  King  oif 
Spain.  Magellan  persuaded  the  Spanish  government 
that  the  Spice  Islands  could  be  reached  by  sailing  to  the 
west,  the  Portuguese  having  previously  reached  them  by 
sailing  to  the  east,  and,  if  this  were  accomplished,  Spain 
would  have  as  good  a  title  to  them,  under  the  bull  of 
Alexander  VI,  as  Portugal.  Five  ships,  carrying  237 
men,  were  accordingly  equipped,  and  on  August  10,  1519, 
Magellan  sailed  from  Seville.  He  struck  boldly  for  the 
south-west,  not  crossing  the  trough  of  the  Atlantic,  as 
Columbus  had  done,  but  passing  down  the  length  of  it, 
his  aim  being  to  find  some  cleft  or  passage  in  the  Ameri- 
can continent  through  which  he  mi^ht  sail  into  the  Great 

C?  ^j 

South  Sea.  His  perseverance  and  resolution  were  at 
last  rewarded  by  the  discovery  of  the  strait  named  by  him 
San  Vittoria,  in  affectionate  honor  of  his  ship,  but  which, 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  79 

with  a  worthy  sentiment,  other  sailors  soon  changed  to 
'  the  Strait  of  Magellan.' 

O 

"  And  now  the  great  sailor  having  burst  through  the 
barrier  of  the  American  continent,  steered  for  the  north- 
west, attempting  to  regain  the  equator.  For  three 
months  and  twenty  days  he  sailed  on  the  Pacific,  and 
never  saw  inhabited  land.  He  was  compelled  by  famine 
to  strip  off  the  pieces  of  skin  and  leather  wherewith  his 
rigging  was  here  and  there  bound,  to  soak  them  in  the 
sea  and  then  soften  them  with  warm  water,  so  as  to  make 
a  wretched  food ;  to  eat  the  sweepings  of  the  ship  and 
other  loathesome  matter ;  to  drink  water  that  had  be- 
come putrid  by  keeping ;  and  yet  he  resolutely  held  on 
his  course,  though  his  men  were  dying  daily.  As  is 
quaintly  observed,  '  their  gums  grew  over  their  teeth, 
and  so  they  could  not  eat.'  He  estimated  that  he  sailed 
over  this  unfathomable  sea  not  less  than  12,000  miles. 

"In  the  whole  history  of  human  undertakings  there  is 
nothing  that  exceeds,  if  indeed  there  is  anything  that 
equals,  this  voyage  of  Magellan's.  That  of  Columbus 
dwindles  away  in  comparison.  It  is  a  display  of  super- 
human perseverance  —  a  display  of  resolution  not  to  be 
diverted  from  its  purpose  by  any  motive  or  any  suffering, 
but  inflexibly  persisting  to  its  end.  Well  might  his 
despairing  sailors  come  to  the  conclusion  that  they  had 
entered  on  a  trackless  waste  of  waters,  endless  before 
them,  and  hopeless  in  a  return.  He  comforted  himself 
when  he  considered  that  in  the  eclipses  of  the  moon  the 
shadow  cast  of  the  earth  is  round ;  and  as  is  the  shadow, 
such,  in  like  manner,  is  the  substance.  It  was  a  stout 
heart —  a  heart  of  triple  brass  —  which  could  thus,  against 
such  authority,  extract  unyielding  faith  from  a  shadow. 

"  This  unparalleled  resolution  met  its  reward  at  last. 
Magellan  reached  a  group  of  islands  north  of  the  equa- 
tor—  the  Ladrones.  In  a  few  days  more  he  became 
aware  that  his  labors  had  been  successful ;  he  met  with 


8o  THE    PASSING    OF    SPAIN    AND 

adventurers  from  Sumatra.  At  an  island  called  Zebu, 
or  Mutan,  he  was  killed,  either,  as  has  been  variously 
related,  in  a  mutiny  of  his  men,  or  —  as  they  declared  — 
in  a  conflict  with  the  savages,  or  insidiously  by  poison. 
Through  treason  and  revenge  it  is  not  unlikely  that  he 
fell,  for  he  was  a  stern  man ;  no  one  but  a  very  stern  man 
could  have  accomplished  so  daring  a  deed.  Hardly  was 
he  gone  when  his  crew  learned  that  they  were  actually  in 
the  vicinity  of  the  Moluccas,  and  that  the  object  of  their 
voyage  was  accomplished.  On  the  morning  of  Novem- 
ber 8,  1521.  having  been  at  sea  two  years  and  three 
months,  as  the  sun  was  rising  they  entered  Tidore,  the 
chief  port  of  the  Spice  Islands.  The  King  of  Tidore 
swore  upon  the  Koran  alliance  to  the  King  of  Spain. 

"  And  now  they  prepared  to  bring  the  news  of  their 
success  back  to  Spain.  Magellan's  lieutenant,  Sebastian 
d'Elcano,  directed  his  course  for  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope, 
again  encountering  the  most  fearful  hardships.  Out  of 
his  slender  crew  he  lost  twenty-one  men.  He  doubled 
the  Cape  at  last;  and  on  September  7,  1522,  in  the  port 
of  St.  Lucar,  near  Seville,  under  his  orders,  the  good  ship 
San  Vittoria  came  safely  to  an  anchor.  She  had  accom- 
plished the  greatest  achievement  in  the  history  of  the 
human  race.  She  had  circumnavigated  the  earth. 

"  Magellan  thus  lost  his  life  in  his  enterprise,  and  yet 
he  made  an  enviable  exchange.  Doubly  immortal,  and 
thrice  happy!  for  he  impressed  his  name  indelibly  on  the 
earth  and  sky,  on  the  strait  that  connects  the  two  great 
oceans,  and  on  those  clouds  of  starry  worlds  seen  in  the 
southern  heavens.  He  also  imposed  a  designation  on 
the  largest  portion  (Pacific  Ocean)  of  the  surface  of  the 
globe."* 

A  dispute  arose  at  once  between  the  Spanish  and  the 
Portuguese  over  their  new  possessions.  After  a  time  a 
congress  was  called  representing  the  best  geographers 

*  Draper's  "  Intellectual  Development  of  Europe." 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF   AMERICA.  8l 

and  scientists  of  the  two  nations.  No  actual  agreement 
was  reached,  but  it  was  tacitly  understood  that  the  Moluc- 
cas, or  Spice  Islands,  and  the  Philippine  Islands  should 
belong  to  Spain,  and  the  greater  part  of  Brazil  fell  to 
Portugal.  The  congress  had  another  and  more  impor- 
tant influence  in  diffusing  better  ideas  of  the  geography 
of  the  world.  . 

Abdication  of  Charles  V. 

"On  the  25th  day  of  October,  1555,  the  estates  of  the 
Netherlands  were  assembled  in  the  great  hall  of  the 
palace  at  Brussels.  They  had  been  summoned  to  be 
witnesses  and  the  guarantees  of  the  abdication  which 
Charles  V  had  long  been  resolved  upon  and  which  he 
was  that  day  to  execute.  None  knew  better  than  he  the 
influence  of  great  spectacles  upon  the  masses  of  man- 
kind. Plain  even  to  shabbiness  in  his  own  costume  and 
usually  attired  in  black,  no  one  ever  understood  better 
how  to  arrange  such  exhibitions  in  a  striking  and  artistic 
style.  The  closing  scene  of  his  long  and  energetic  reign 
he  had  now  arranged  with  profound  study.  The  termi- 
nation of  his  own  career  and  the  opening  of  his  beloved 
Phillip's  were  to  be  dramatized  in  a  manner  worthy  of 
the  august  character  of  the  actors  and  the  importance  of 
the  great  stage  where  they  played  their  parts. 

At  the  western  end  a  spacious  platform  or  stage  with 

;;six  or  seven  steps  had  been  constructed,  below  wm'ch  was 

the  range  of  benches  for  the  deputies  of  the  seventeen 

provinces.     Upon  the  stage  itself  there  were  rows  of  seats 

covered  with  tapestry  upon  the  right  hand  and  upon  the 

left     These  were  for  the  Knights  of  the  Order  and  the 

guests    of   high    distinction.      In    the    rear   were    other 

benches  for  the  members   of  the  three  great  councils. 

In  the  center  of  the  stage  was  a  splendid  canopy  beneath 

-which  were  placed  three  gilded  arm  chairs.     All  the  seats 

6 


82  THE    PASSING   OF    SPAIN   AND 

upon  the  platform  were  vacant,  but  the  benches  below 
were  already  filled.  Grave  magistrates  in  chain  and 
gown,  executive  officers  in  the  splendid  civic  uniforms  for 
which  the  Netherlands  were  celebrated  already  filled  every 
seat  within  the  space  allotted.  As  the  clock  struck  three 
the  hero  of  the  scene  appeared,  leaning  on  the  shoulder 
of  William  of  Orange,  and  immediately  followed  by 
Phillip  II  accompanied  by  a  glittering  throng  of  war- 
riors, counselors,  governors,  and  Knights  of  the  Fleece. 
The  curtain  was  about  to  fall  forever  upon  the  mightiest 
emperor  since  Charlemagne,  and  where  the  opening 
scene  of  the  long  and  tremendous  tragedy  of  Philip's 
reign  was  to  be  simultaneously  enacted. 

It  is  worth  our  while  to  examine  minutely  the  appear- 
ance of  the  two  principal  characters.  Charles  V  was 
then  fifty-five  years  and  eight  months  old,  but  he  was 
already  decrepit  with  premature  old  age.  He  was  about 
middle  height,  had  been  athletic  and  well  proportioned, 
broad  in  the  shoulders,  deep  in  the  chest,  thin  in  the 
flank,  very  muscular;  he  had  been  able  to  match  himself 
with  all  competitors  in  the  tourney  and  the  ring,  and  he 
vanquished  the  bull  with  his  own  hand  in  the  favorite 
national  amusement  of  Spain.  He  had  been  able  in  the 
field  to  do  the  duty  of  captain  and  soldier,  to  endure 
fatigue  and  exposure,  and  every  privation  except  fasting. 
Now  corpulent  in  hands,  knees  and  legs,  he  supported 
himself  -with  difficulty  upon  a  crutch  with  the  aid  of  an 
attendant's  shoulder.  In  face  he  had  always  been  ex- 
tremely ugly,  and  time  had  certainly  not  improved  his 
physiognomy.  His  hair,  once  of  a  light  color,  was 
now  white  with  age,  close  clipped  and  bristling.  His 
beard  was  gray,  coarse  and  shaggy.  His  forehead,  spa- 
cious and  commanding;  his  eye  dark  blue,  with  an 
expression  both  majestic  and  benignant.  The  lower  part 
of  his  face  was  famous  for  its  deformity.  The  under  lip, 
a  Burgundian  inheritance,  as  faithfully  transmitted  as  the 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  83 

duchy  and  the  country,  was  heavy  and  hanging;  the 
lower  jaw  protruding  so  far  beyond  the  upper  that  it  was 
impossible  for  him  to  bring  together  the  few  fragments 
of  teeth  which  still  remained,  or  to  speak  a  whole  sen- 
tence in  an  intelligible  voice.  So  much  for  the  father! 

CJ 

The  son,  Phillip  II,  was  a  small,  meager  man,  much 
below  the  middle  height,  with  thin  legs  and  narrow 
chest,  and  the  shrinking,  timid  air  of  a  habitual  invalid. 
His  body  was  but  a  human  cage,  which,  however  brief 
and  narrow,  held  a  soul  at  whose  flight  the  immeasurable 
expanse  of  heaven  was  too  contracted.  In  face,  he  was 
the  living  image  of  his  father  Such  was  the  personal 
appearance  of  the  man  who  was  about  to  receive  into  a 
single  hand  the  destinies  of  the  whole  world,  whose  single 
will  was  for  the  future  to  shape  the  fortunes  of  every  in- 
dividual then  present,  of  many  millions  more  in  Europe, 
America,  and  to  the  ends  of  the  earth,  and  of  countless 
millions  yet  unborn.'"* 

Synopsis  of  History  Contemporary  with  this  Beign. 

A.  D. 

1516.  Las    Casas   made    Protector  of   the    Indians  by 
Ximenes. 

1517.  Dispute  between  Tetzel  the  Peddler  and  Luther, 
concerning  the  sale  of  indulgences.     Balboa  con- 
demned to  death  by  a  jealous  governor.     Cordova 
discovers  Yucatan. 

1519.  Cortez  lands  in  Mexico.  Magellan  sails.  Maxi- 
milian I  dies,  Charles  V  elected  Emperor  of 
Germany. 

1 5  20.    Cortez  captures  City  of  Mexico.     Montezuma  dies. 

1521.  Cortez  completes  the  conquest  of  Mexico.  Luther 
excommunicated.  Turks  capture  Belgrade. 

*  Motley's  "  Rise  of  the  Dutch  Republic." 


84  THE    PASSING   OF    SPAIN    AND 

A.  D. 

1522.  Turks  capture  Island  of  Rhodes  from  the  Knights 
of  St.  John. 

1524.  Chevalier  Bayard  killed  at  battle  of  Rebec. 

1525.  Battle  of  Pavia.     Francis  I   of   France  defeated 
and  captured  by  Charles. 

1526.  Treaty  of  Madrid.     Francis  I  released. 

1529.  League  formed  by  Protestant  princes  of  Germany. 
Turks  under  Solyman  the  Magnificent  besiege 
Vienna.  Fall  of  Cardinal  Woolsey  from  power. 

1532.  Pizarro  conquers  Peru. 

1533.  Catherine  of  Aragon  divorced.     Henry  VIII  re- 
nounces papal  supremacy.     Marries  Anne  Boleyn. 
Queen  Elizabeth  born. 

1536.  Anne    Boleyn    executed.      Henry   VIII    marries 
Jane  Seymour  the  next  day. 

1537.  Jane  Seymour  dies.     Edward  VI  born. 

1539.  De  Soto  discovers  Florida. 

1540.  Henry   marries   and   divorces   Anne    of    Cleves. 
Marries  Catherine   Howard.     Printing  press  es- 
tablished   in    Mexico.     The    Society   of  Jesuits 
founded. 

1541.  Pizarro  assassinated. 

1542.  Catherine   Howard  executed.     De  Soto  dies  and 
is  buried  in  the   Mississippi.      Calvin  organizes 
his    religious  states    in   Geneva.      Mary   Stuart, 
Queen  of  Scots,  born.    (d.  1587.) 

1543.  Henry  VIII  marries  Catherine  Parr.     Copernicus, 
a  Prussian  astronomer,  publishes  his  works  prov- 
ing the  sun  the  centre  of  the  solar  system. 

1547.  Henry  VIII  dies,  his  son,  Edward  VI,  accedes  to 
the  throne.  Francis  I  of  France  dies.  Henry  II 
accedes  to  the  throne.  Ivan  the  Terrible  rises  to 
supreme  power  in  Russia  and  is  the  first  to  be 
called  Czar. 


THE    ASCENDANCY    OF    AMERICA.  85 

A.  D. 

1552.  Raleigh  born.    (d.  1618.)    Spenser  born.    (d.  1599.) 

1553.  Edward  VI  dies.     Wills  the  crown  to  Lady  Jane 
Grey,  great-granddaughter  of  Henry  VII.     Mary 
and  Elizabeth  had  each  been  declared  illegitimate 
by  separate  act  of  Parliament.     The  country  sup- 
ports Mary.     She  accedes  to  the  throne. 

1554.  Mary  marries   Philip  II  of  France.     Lady  Jane 
Grey  executed. 

1555.  Rogers,   Latimer  and   Ridley,   English   Bishops, 
burned  at  the  stake. 

1556.  Cranmer  burned.     By  abdication  of  Charles  V, 
Philip  II  becomes  King  of  Spain,  and  Ferdinand 
I  Emperor  of  Germany. 

PHILIP  II.— 1556-1598. 

Son  of  Charles  V.  and  Isabella  of  Portugal.  In  1554 
he  married  his  cousin,  Mary  queen  of  England,  daughter 
of  Henry  VIII  and  Catherine  of  Aragon,  and  acceded 
to  the  throne  in  1556  upon  the  abdication  of  his  father. 

Spain  under  his  father  Charles  had  been  but  one  of 
the  kingdoms  of  a  large  empire,  and  it  saw  but  little  of 
its  monarch ;  under  Philip  everything  was  centralized  in 
Spain.  He  was  cold,  reserved,  ambitious,  and  intensely 
bigoted,  possessing  all  the  ambition  of  his  father  and  but 
a  part  of  his  ability.  The  growth  of  Protestantism  was 
a  source  of  great  trouble  to  him,  and  the  long,  bitter  wars 
in  which  it  involved  him  in  his  endeavors  to  suppress  it 
exhausted  his  kingdom  and  left  him  but  the  form,  and 
not  the  substance,  of  power  to  transmit  to  his  son. 

The  great  events  of  his  reign  were  the  wars  of  the 
Netherlands  for  independence,  the  attempted  invasion  of 
England,  the  conquest  of  Portugal,  the  defeat  of  Turks 
at  Lepanto,  wars  with  France  and  Italy,  and  colonization 
of  New  World. 


86  THE    PASSING   OF    SPAIN    AND 

His  marriage  with  Mary  gave  him  no  heir,  and  was  a 
bitter  disappointment  to  him.  A  son  would  have  united 
all  the  English  possessions  to  those  of  Spain  and  made 
its  ruler  the  most  powerful  in  the  world.  After  the  death 
of  Mary  he  proposed  marriage  to  Elizabeth,  which  she, 
with  characteristic  shrewdness,  appears  to  have  taken 
under  consideration  until  such  time  as  she  was  able,  with 
safety,  to  decline  it. 

"  Philip  has  been  accused  of  indolence.  As  far  as  the 
body  was  concerned,  such  an  accusation  was  well  founded. 
Even  when  young  he  had  no  fondness  for  the  robust  and 
chivalrous  sports  of  the  age.  He  never,  like  his  father, 
conducted  military  expeditions  in  person,  but  it  would  be 
a  great  mistake  to  charge  him  with  sluggishness  of  mind. 
He  was  content  to  toil  for  hours  and  long  into  the  night 
at  his  solitary  labors.  No  expression  of  weariness  or  of 
impatience  was  known  to  escape  him.  He  received  peti- 
tioners graciously  and  listened  to  all  they  had  to  say  with 
patience,  for  that  was  his  virtue;  but  his  countenance 
was  exceedingly  grave,  and  there  was  a  reserve  in  his 
deportment  which  made  the  boldest  feel  ill  at  ease  in  his 
presence.  It  was  natural  that  men  of  even  the  highest 
rank  should  be  overawed  in  the  presence  of  a  monarch 
who  held  the  destinies  of  so  many  millions  in  his  hands, 

j 

and  who  surrounded  himself  with  the  veil  of  mystery 
which  the  most  cunning  politician  could  not  penetrate. 
He  kept  his  spies  at  the  principal  European  courts,  who 
so  furnished  him  with  intelligence  that  he  was  as  well 
acquainted  with  what  was  passing  in  England  and  in 
France  as  if  he  had  resided  on  the  spot.  His  mind  was 
filled  with  suspicions,  and  he  waited  until  time  had 
proved  their  truth,  treating  the  object  of  them  with  par- 
ticular favor  until  the  hour  of  vengeance  arrived.  His 
own  historian  says,  '  His  dagger  followed  close  upon  his 
smile.'  It  was  a  defect  in  his  administration  that  his  love 
of  power  and  his  distrust  of  others  made  him  desire  to  do 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  8/ 

everything  himself.  As  he  was  slow  in  making  up  his 
own  mind,  and  seldom  acted  without  first  ascertaining 
the  opinions  of  his  counsel,  we  well  understand  the  con- 
sequences of  such  delay.  Even  when  a  decision  did 
•come,  it  often  came  too  late  to  be  of  service,  for  the  cir- 
cumstances which  led  to  it  had  wholly  changed."* 

"  Philip  II  was  absolute  master  of  an  empire  so  superior 
to  the  other  states  of  the  world  in  extent,  in  resources, 
and  especially  in  military  and  naval  forces,  as  to  make 
the  project  of  enlarging  that  empire  into  a  universal 
monarchy  seem  a  perfectly  feasible  scheme.  Since  the 
downfall  of  the  Roman  empire  no  such  preponderating 
power  had  existed  in  the  world.  When  Philip  II  reigned, 
France  had  become  so  miserably  weak  through  her  civil 
wars  that  he  had  nothing  to  dread  from  her.  In  Ger- 
many, Italy,  and  Poland  he  had  zealous  friends  and 
divided  enemies.  Against  the  Turks  he  had  gained 
glorious  and  great  successes.  He  could  look  around  the 
continent  of  Europe  without  discerning  a  single  antag- 
onist of  whom  he  could  stand  in  awe.  Beside  the 
Spanish  crown  Philip  succeeded  to  the  kingdom  of 
Naples  and  Sicily,  the  Duchy  of  Milan,  Franche-compte, 
and  the  Netherlands;  in  Africa  he  possessed  Tunis, 
Oran,  the  Cape  Verde  and  the  Canary  Islands;  in  Asia 
the  Philippine,  the  Sunda,  and  part  of  the  Molucca 
Islands.  He  was  lord  of  the  most  splendid  portion  of 
the  new  world ;  the  empires  of  Peru  and  Mexico,  New 
Spain  and  Chili,  with  their  abundant  mines  of  the 
precious  metals;  and  Hispaniola  and  Cuba  were  prov- 
inces of  the  sovereign  of  Spain.  Philip  had  also  the 
advantage  of  finding  himself  at  the  head  of  a  large 
standing  army  in  a  perfect  state  of  discipline  and  equip- 
ment, in  an  age  when  except  some  few  insignificant 
corps,  standing  armies  were  unknown  in  Christendom. 
The  renown  of  the  Spanish  troops  was  justly  high,  and 

*  Motley's  "  Rise  of  the  Dutch  Republic." 


88  THE    PASSING    OF    SPAIN    AND 

the  infantry  in  particular  was  considered  the  best  in  the 
world."  * 

"  The  impetuous  chivalry  of  France,  the  serried 
phalanx  of  Switzerland,  were  each  found  wanting  when 
brought  face  to  face  with  the  Spanish  infantry."! 

Agriculture. 

This,  under  the  Moors,  had  reached  such  a  high 
state  of  perfection,  now  rapidly  declined,  and  suffered 
greatly  by  reason  of  short-sighted  legislation.  "A  com- 
pany of  sheep-farmers  (Mesta)  contrived  to  obtain  the 
rights  of  pasture  over  the  whole  of  Spain  under  certain 
limitations.  They  claimed  over  any  farm  a  right  of  way 
240  feet  wide  at  certain  seasons  for  their  flocks  to  and 
from  the  uplands  in  winter  pasture.  Lands  once  reduced 
to  pasture  could  never  afterward  be  plowed  without  the 
sanction  of  this  powerful  body  and  the  payment  of  a 
fine  fixed  by  themselves.  The  sheep  consumed  the 
Spaniards  and  not  the  Spaniards  the  sheep.  It  was  com- 
puted that  200,000  acres  of  good,  arable  land  had  gone 
out  of  cultivation,  and  as  much  more  was  left  in  a  state 
of  nature  by  the  Monks,  who  were  its  owners."  J 

Trade  and  Industry. 

These  suffered  equally  with  agriculture.  Spain's  col- 
onies were  founded  not  to  increase  trade  but  to  wring 
the  last  possible  ounce  of  gold  from  them,  no  matter  at 
what  expense  to  native  life.  Charles  was  shrewd  enough 
to  see  the  advantage  of  an  extensive  commerce,  but  his 
successors  were  blind  to  an  opportunity  which,  had  it 
been  cultivated,  would  have  been  worth  more  to  them 
than  all  the  treasure  she  secured.  "From  1701  to  1809 
her  colonies  on  the  mainland  yielded  her  in  gold  and 

*Creasey's  "  Fifteen  Decisive  Battles  of  the  World." 

f  Macaulay's  "Spain  Under  Philip  II." 

jYeates'  "Growth  and  Vicissitudes  of  Commerce." 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  89 

silver  alone  2,515,660,000  piasters,"  or  about  as  many 
dollars. 

"A  short-sighted  and  slavish  policy,  however,  led  to 
ruin.  The  natives  were  systematically  crushed.  Mu- 
lattos and  Mestizos  sprung  of  Spanish  parentage  were 
excluded  from  posts  of  trust.  Only  those  of  the  Spanish 
sent  out  by  council  could  exercise  authority,  and  these 
were  not  allowed,  while  in  office,  to  settle  in  the  country. 
Creoles  of  white  parentage,  but  born  and  brought  up  in 
the  country,  could  not  administer  any  department  of 
government  Spain  kept  all  the  traffic  to  herself  and 
jealously  excluded  foreigners  from  her  ports. 

"  Seville  first,  and  afterward  Cadiz,  were  the  harbors 
to  which  the  royal  monoply  of  colonial  trade  was 
confined."  * 

Home  manufactures  were  stagnant.  The  whirr  of 
10,000  looms  might  once  have  been  heard  in  many  of 
the  Moorish  cities.  Now  there  were  not  so  many  in  the 
whole  peninsula.  Merino  wool  was  highly  valued 
throughout  Europe,  but  Spain  imported  the  cloth 
woven  from  the  fleece  which  she  had  supplied. 

In  spite  of  the  enormous  treasures  from  the  new  field 
pouring  into  the  coffers  of  Spain  the  country  was 
continually  running  in  debt. 

Revolt  of  the  Netherlands. 

Spanish  soldiers  were  quartered  in  the  Netherlands, 
under  the  Duke  of  Alva,  and  their  presence  was  a  con- 
stant source  of  irritation  to  the  people.  A  rebellion 
arose  in  1566,  which  was  mercilessly  crushed.  The 
Inquisition  was  introduced,  and  within  a  few  months 
after  Alva's  arrival  2,000  people  had  felt  its  power. 
Even  the  Pope  besought  Philip  to  be  more  lenient. 
The  country  was  overawed  by  these  stern  measures,  and 
when  William  of  Orange  came  to  their  help  with  troops 

*  Yeates'  "Growth  and  Vicissitudes  of  Commerce." 


QO  THE    PASSING   OF    SPAIN    AND 

from  Germany  there  were  few  bold  enough  to  take  sides 
with  him. 

England  in  an  industrial  way  was  the  gainer  by  these 
troubles,  as  large  numbers  of  skilled  artisans  fled  to  that 
country  for  safety,  and  established  in  England  the  indus- 
tries for  which  Holland  had  long  been  famous. 

Alva  soon  proceeded  to  impose  taxes  upon  the  Dutch 
for  the  support  of  his  soldiers.  This  was  the  last  straw. 
The  seven  northern  provinces  immediately  arose  in 
rebellion,  1572,  and  chose  the  Prince  of  Orange  as  their 
captain.  They  were  secretly  encouraged  by  Elizabeth, 
the  King  of  France,  and  others,  who  were  glad  of  an 
opportunity  to  annoy  Philip.  Under  the  leadership  of 
the  Prince  of  Orange  substantial  progress  was  made. 
Spain  issued  a  proclamation  offering  a  reward  to  any- 
one who  would  remove  such  an  enemy  of  the  king  and 
church.  After  several  attempts  at  assassination,  one 
was  at  last  successful,  and  closed  the  career  of  the  great 
leader  of  the  Netherlands,  July  10,  1584. 

In  1586,  Elizabeth  actively  engaged  in  their  assist- 
ance, sent  the  Duke  of  Leicester  and  Sir  Philip  Sid- 
ney with  5,000  soldiers.  Leicester  besieged  Zutphen, 
and  Sir  Philip  Sidney  fell  before  its  walls.  Nothing 
came  of  the  expedition,  and  in  1587  it  was  recalled. 

In  1588  the  Dutch  lent  material  aid  to  England  by 
blockading  the  Duke  of  Parma,  so  that  he  was  unable 
to  join  the  "  Spanish  Armada." 

For  eighty  years,  with  but  one  considerable  interrup- 
tion, a  desultory  war  was  carried  on  with  Spain,  though 
their  independence  was  recognized  by  England  and 
France  about  1581. 

Philip  had  prepared  an  armada  of  300  ships  of  war 
with  which  to  crush  the  Netherlands  once  and  forever.  A 
pestilence  seized  the  fleet  when  ready  to  sail,  and  of 
15,000  troops  on  board  more  than  half  died  in  less  than  a 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  9! 

month.     The  same  fleet  later  as  the  "  Spanish  Armada  " 
was  no  happier. 

Antwerp. 

"  The  siege  of  this  prosperous  and  splendid  city  by  the 
Duke  of  Parma  was  the  great  success  of  Philip's  reign. 
The  slaughter,  of  3,000  citizens  in  cold  blood  and  the 
plunder  to  which  the  city  was  subjected  for  many  days 
were  his  reward.  He  had  the  glory  of  destroying  a  har- 
bor where  a  forest  of  masts  was  once  to  be  seen  and  of 
causing  grass  to  grow  in  the  streets  of  the  city,  which 
had  contributed  to  his  revenues  far  more  than  any  other 
in  his  wide  dominion."  * 

Lepanto. 

Turkish  power  in  the  east  had  assumed  gigantic  pro- 
portions, and  their  navy  controlled  the  Mediterranean. 

In  1571,  a  large  fleet  under  the  command  of  Don 
Juan  of  Spain,  natural  brother  of  Philip  II,  and  the  most 
skillful  warrior  of  his  time,  aided  by  the  Venetian  and  papal 
fleets,  was  sent  against  them.  It  fell  in  with  the  Turkish 
fleet  off  Lepanto  on  the  coast  of  Greece,  and  gained  one 
of  the  most  decisive  battles  of  the  world.  Even  Con- 
stantinople was  threatened,  but  Philip  was  jealous  of  his 
brother  and  the  victory  was  not  followed  up. 

The  defeat  of  the  Turks  before  Vienna  in  1529  and  at 
Lepanto  occurred  at  the  highest  tide  of  Turkish  power. 

Don  Juan  afterwards  took  charge  of  the  Spanish 
affairs  in  the  Netherlands,  and  under  his  care  they  were 
rapidly  improving,  when  he  died  so  suddenly  as  to  leave 
strong  suspicions  of  having  been  poisoned. 

*Yeates'  "  Growth  and  Vicissitudes  of  Commerce." 


92  THE    PASSING   OF   SPAIN    AND 

Invasion  of  England  Planned. 

Philip's  ambitious  plans  for  the  marriage  of  Elizabeth 
having  failed,  he  now  determined  to  secure  by  force  what 
he  had  been  unable  to  effect  by  diplomacy. 

"  One  nation  only  had  been  his  active,  his  persevering, 
and  his  successful  foe.  England  had  encouraged  his  re- 
volted subjects  in  Flanders  and  given  them  aid  in  men 
and  money,  without  which  they  must  have  fallen.  Eng- 
lish ships  had  plundered  his  colonies  ;  they  had  inflicted 
defeats  on  his  squadrons ;  they  had  captured  his  cities 
and  burned  his  arsenals  on  the  very  coasts  of  Spain ; 
were  she  once  subdued  the  Dutch  must  submit ;  France 
could  not  cope  with  him,  the  empire  would  not  oppose 
him,  and  universal  dominion  seemed  sure  to  be  the  result 
of  the  conquest  of  that  malignant  island."  * 

With  the  enormous  resources  at  his  hand  he  began  to 
plan  the  invasion  of  England.  A  veteran  army  under 
the  Duke  of  Parma  was  mobilized  at  Dunkirk,  just  across 
the  channel,  and  only  forty-five  miles  from  Dover.  He 
gathered  the  largest  fleet  that  the  world  had  ever  seen ; 
well  equipped,  with  a  high  reputation,  and  a  complement 
of  over  thirty  thousand  men. 

"  Escorted  by  an  overpowering  naval  force,  Parma  and 
his  army  were  to  embark  in  their  flotilla,  cross  the  sea  to 
England,  where  they  were  to  be  landed  together  with  the 
troops  which  the  Armada  brought  from  the  ports  of 
Spain.  The  Armada  set  sail  from  Tagus  the  2Qth  of 
May,  1588,  but  near  Corunna  met  with  a  tempest  that 
drove  it  into  the  port  with  severe  loss.  The  Armada 
sailed  again  from  Corunna  on  the  1 2th  of  July.  On  the 
2Oth  of  July  it  was  discovered  by  the  English  scouting 
ships  drawn  up  in  the  form  of  a  crescent,  which,  from 
horn  to  horn,  measured  some  seven  miles. 

"A  match  at  bowls  was  being  played,  in  which  Drake 
and  other  high  officers  of  the  fleet  were  engaged.  At 

*Creasey's  "  Decisive  Battles  of  the  World." 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  93 

this  exciting  information  the  captains  began  to  hurry 
down  to  the  water,  and  there  was  a  shouting  for  the 
ship's  boats,  but  Drake  coolly  checked  his  comrades  and 
insisted  that  the  match  should  be  played  out"  * 

Charles  Kingsley,  in  "  Westward  Ho  !  "  describes  for 
us  the  men  who  were  waiting  to  "  singe  the  beard  of  the 
king  of  Spain:" 

"  See  those  five  talking  earnestly  in  the  center  of  a 
ring,  which  longs  to  overhear,  and  yet  is  too  respectful 
to  approach  close.  These  soft,  long  eyes  and  pointed 
chin  we  recognize  already;  they  are  Walter  Raleigh's. 
The  fair  young  man  in  the  flame-colored  doublet,  whose 
arm  is  around  Raleigh's  neck,  is  Lord  Sheffield ;  oppo- 
site them  stands,  by  the  side  of  Sir  Richard  Grenville,  a 
man  as  stately  even  as  he  —  Lord  Sheffield's  uncle,  the 
Lord  Charles  Howard  of  Effingham,  Lord  High  Admiral 
of  England;  next  to  him  is  his  son-in-law,  Sir  Robert 
Southwell,  Captain  of  the  Elizabeth  Jones;  but  who  is 
that  short,  sturdy,  plainly  dressed  man,  who  stands  with 
legs  a  little  apart  and  hands  behind  his  back,  looking 
up,  with  keen  gray  eyes,  into  the  face  of  each  speaker? 
His  cap  is  in  his  hands,  so  you  can  see  the  bold  head  of 
crisp  brown  hair  and  the  wrinkled  forehead,  as  well  as 
the  high  cheek-bones,  the  short  square  face,  the  broad 
temples,  the  thick  lips,  which  are  yet  as  firm  as  granite. 
A  coarse,  plebeian  stamp  of  man;  yet  the  whole  figure 
and  attitude  are  that  of  boundless  determination,  self- 
possession,  energy;  and  when  at  last  he  speaks  a  few 
blunt  words,  all  eyes  are  turned  respectfully  upon  him, — 
for  his  name  is  Francis  Drake. 

"  A  burly,  grizzled  elder,  in  greasy,  sea-stained  gar- 
ments, contrasting  oddly  with  the  huge  gold  chain  about 
his  neck,  waddles  up,  as  if  he  had  been  born  and  had 
lived  ever  since  in  a  gale  of  wind  at  sea.  The  upper  half 

*  Creasey's  "  Decisive  Battles  of  the  World." 


94  THE    PASSING    OF    SPAIN    AND 

of  his  sharp,  dogged  visage  seems  of  brick-red  leather, 
the  lower  of  badger's  fur;  and  he  claps  Drake  on  the 
back,  and  with  broad  Devon  twang  shouts,  '  Be  you  a 
coming  to  drink  your  wine,  Francis  Drake,  or  be  you 
not?  —  saving  your  presence,  my  Lord.'  The  Lord 
High  Admiral  only  laughs,  and  bids  Drake  go  and 
drink  his  wine;  for  John  Hawkins,  Admiral  of  the  Port, 
is  the  patriarch  of  Plymouth  seamen,  if  Drake  be  their 
hero,  and  says  and  does  pretty  much  what  he  likes  in 
any  company  on  earth ;  not  to  mention  that  to-day's 
prospect  of  an  Armageddon  fight  has  shaken  him  alto- 
gether out  of  his  usual  crabbed  reserve,  and  made  him 
overflow  with  loquacious  good  humor,  even  to  his  rival 
Drake." 

The  Engagement. 

"By  nine  o'clock  on  the  thirty-first  of  July  on  the 
Cornish  coasts  the  fleets  had  their  first  meeting.  There 
were  one  hundred  thirty-six  sails  of  the  Spaniards,  of 
which  ninety  were  large  ships,  and  sixty-seven  of  the 
English.  Their  Captain-General  (Medina  Sidonia)  sat 
on  the  deck  of  his  great  galleon,  the  St.  Martin,  sur- 
rounded by  generals  of  infantry  and  colonels  of  cavaliers, 
who  knew  as  little  as  he  himself  of  naval  matters.  The 
English  ships,  on  the  other  hand,  swift  and  easily  handled, 
could  sail  round  and  round  those  unwieldy  galleons, 
hulks,  and  galleys  rowed  by  fettered  slave  gangs.  The 
superior  seamanship  of  such  experienced  captains  as 
Drake,  Frobisher  and  Hawkins  obtained  the  weather 
gauge  at  once,  and  cannonaded  the  enemy  at  intervals 
with  considerable  effect,  easily  escaping  at  will  out  of 
range  of  the  Armada,  which  was  incapable  of  bearing 
sail  in  pursuit,  although  provided  with  an  armament 
which  could  sink  all  its  enemies  at  close  quarters.  Their 
whole  fleet  did  its  utmost  to  offer  general  battle,  but  in 
vain.  The  English,  following  at  the  heels  of  the  enemy, 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  95 

refused  all  such  invitations  and  attacked  only  the  rear 
guard. 

"  They  (Spanish)  had  been  out-manoeuvred,  out-sailed, 
and  thoroughly  maltreated  by  their  antagonists,  and 
unable  to  inflict  a  single  blow  in  return. 

"(Second  day).  Never  since  England  was  England 
had  such  a  sight  been  seen  as  now  revealed  itself  in  those 
narrow  straits  between  Dover  and  Calais.  Along  that 
low  sandy  shore,  within  the  range  of  the  Calais  fortifica- 
tions, one  hundred  thirty  Spanish  ships,  the  greater  num- 
ber of  them  the  largest  and  most  heavily  armed  in  the 
world,  lay  face  to  face  and  scarcely  out  of  cannon  shot, 
with  one  hundred  fifty  English  sloops  and  frigates,  the 
strongest  and  swiftest  that  the  island  could  furnish,  and 
commanded  by  men  whose  exploits  had  rung  through 
the  world.  Farther  along  the  coast,  invisible  but  known 
to  be  performing  a  most  perilous  and  vital  service,  was  a 
squadron  of  Dutch  vessels  of  large  size  lining  both  the 
inner  and  outer  edges  of  the  sandbanks  off  the  Flemish 
coast.  These  fleets  of  Holland  blockaded  every  port, 
and  longed  to  grapple  with  the  Duke  of  Parma  as  soon 
as  his  fleets  of  gunboats  should  venture  forth. 

"(Last  engagement).  The  battle  lasted  six  hours  — 
long,  hot  and  fierce.  The  English  still  maintained  the 
tactics  which  had  proved  so  successful,  and  resolutely 
refused  the  fierce  attempts  of  the  Spaniards  to  lay  them- 
selves alongside.  The  well  disciplined  English  mariners 
poured  broadside  after  broadside  against  the  towering 
ships  of  the  Armada,  which  afforded  so  easy  a  mark, 
while  the  Spaniards  on  their  part  found  it  impossible, 
after  wasting  incredible  quantities  of  powder  and  shot,  to 
inflict  any  severe  damage  on  their  enemies.  Throughout 
the  action  not  an  English  ship  was  destroyed  and  not  a 
hundred  men  were  killed.  There  was  scarcely  a  ship  in 
the  Armada  that  did  not  suffer  severely.  Sixteen  of 
their  best  ships  had  been  sacrificed  and  from  four  to  five 


96  THE    PASSING   OF    SPAIN    AND 

thousand  soldiers  killed.  The  Captain-General  was  a 
bad  sailor  but  a  brave  soldier.  Crippled  as  he  was  he 
would  still  have  faced  the  enemy,  but  the  winds  and  cur- 
rents were  fast  driving  him  on  a  lee  shore  and  the  pilots, 
one  and  all,  assured  him  it  would  be  inevitable  destruc- 
tion to  remain.  But  blackness  of  night  seemed  suddenly 
to  descend.  Damaged,  leaking,  without  pilots,  without 
a  captain-commander  the  great  fleet  entered  that  fierce 
storm  and  were  whirled  along  the  iron  crags  of  Norway 
and  between  the  savage  rocks  of  Faroe  and  the  Hebrides. 
Disaster  after  disaster  marked  their  perilous  track  ;  gale 
after  gale  swept  them  hither  and  thither;  the  coasts  of 
Norway,  Scotland  and  Ireland  were  strewn  with  the 
wrecks  of  that  famous  fleet  which  claimed  the  dominion 
of  the  sea.  Thirty-nine  vessels  were  driven  upon  the 
Irish  coast,  where  nearly  every  soul  on  board  perished, 
where  the  few  who  escaped  to  the  shores  were  either 
butchered  in  cold  blood  or  sent  coupled,  in  halters,  from 
village  to  village,  in  order  to  be  shipped  to  England.  Of 
one  hundred  thirty-four  vessels  which  sailed  from  Corunna 
in  July  but  fifty-three,  great  and  small,  made  their  escape 
to  Spain,  and  these  were  so  damaged  as  to  be  utterly 
worthless.  The  '  Invincible  Armada'  had  not  only  been 
vanquished,  but  annihilated."* 

The  English  Admiral,  Drake,  says  that  on  their  re- 
turn "They  were  not  ashamed  to  publish  in  sundry 
languages,  in  print,  the  great  victory  which  they  pre- 
tended to  have  obtained  against  this  realm,  and  spread 
the  same  in  a  most  false  sort  over  all  parts  of  France, 
Italy,  and  elsewhere." 

Navarre. 

Henry,  king  of  Navarre,  upon  the  assassination  of 
Henry  III  of  France  in  1589,  acceded  to  the  French 

*  Motley's  "  Rise  of  Dutch  Republic." 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  97 

throne  as  Henry  IV.  France  was  torn  asunder  by  civil 
strife,  and  Henry  the  Huguenot  did  not  have  the  hearty 
support  of  the  Catholic  faction.  Philip  would  not  allow 
a  Protestant  king  to  accede  to  the  throne  of  his  chief 
rival  power,  and  so,  aided  with  money  and  men,  a  Catholic 
league  formed  in  opposition  to  Henry.  The  forces  met 
for  the  decisive  contest  March  I4th,  1590. 

"  The  king  had  fastened  a  great  white  plume  to  his 
helmet  and  had  adorned  his  horse's  head  with  another 
equally  conspicuous.  He  now  exclaimed  to  those  about 
him,  '  Comrades,  God  is  for  us ;  these  are  His  enemies  and 
ours ;  if  you  lose  sight  of  your  standards  rally  to  my  white 
plume;  you  will  find  it  on  the  road  to  victory  and  to 
honor.'  The  king  plunged  into  the  thickest  of  the  fight 
two  horses'  length  ahead  of  his  companions.  That 
moment  he  forgot  he  was  king  of  France  and  general- 
in-chief,  both  in  one,  and  fought  as  if  he  were  a  private 
soldier.  The  enemies  outnumbered  the  knights  of  the 
king's  squadron  more  than  as  two  to  one.  No  wonder 
that  some  of  the  latter  flinched  and  actually  turned  back, 
especially  when  the  standard-bearer  of  the  king,  receiving 
a  deadly  wound  in  the  face,  lost  control  of  his  horse  and 
went  riding  aimlessly  about  the  field,  still  grasping  the 
banner  in  grim  despair.  But  the  greater  number  emu- 
lated the  courage  of  their  leader  and  the  white  plume 
kept  them  in  the  road  to  victory  and  to  honor.  But, 
although  fiercely  contested,  the  conflict  was  not  long. 
The  troopers  of  Mayenne  wavered  and  finally  fled. 
Henry  of  Navarre  emerged  from  the  confusion  safe  and 
sound,  covered  with  dust  and  blood  not  his  own.  The 
battle  had  been  a  short  one.  'Between  ten  and  eleven 
o'clock  the  first  attack  was  made,  and  in  less  than  an 
hour  the  army  of  the  League  was  routed."  * 

*Baird's  "  Huguenots  and  Henry  of  Navarre." 

7 


98  THE    PASSING   OF   SPAIN    AND 

This  was  the  death-blow  of  the  League  and  the  turning- 
point  in  the  career  of  Henry  IV.  and  when  he  adjured 
Protestantism  in  1593  he  received  a  fairly  cordial  support 
of  all  the  discordant  elements  of  his  kingdom.  By  the 
Edict  of  Nantes,  which  he  issued  in  1598,  provision  was 
made  for  the  re-establishment  of  Catholic  worship  wher- 
ever it  had  been  banished  within  thirty  years,  and  religious 
toleration  was  granted  to  the  Protestants  throughout  the 
French  dominions.  He  was  now  fairly  seated  on  the 
throne,  and  Philip  experienced  not  only  the  mortification 
of  the  defeat  but  saw  with  fear  the  development  of  a  rival 
power  that  was  to  cause  his  successors  unmeasurable 
trouble.  Although  Philip  II.  transmitted  to  his  son 
Philip  III.  an  empire  which  was  apparently  intact,  it 
was  only  so  in  form  and  not  in  substance. 

Synopsis  of  Events  Contemporary  with  this  Period. 

1558.  The    French    recover    Calais.      Mary    dies   and 
Elizabeth  accedes  to  the  throne. 

1559.  Papal  Index  Expurgatorius  names  the  books  that 
must  not  be  read. 

1561.  Francis    Bacon,    author  of  "  Novum  Organum" 
born.  (d.  1626). 

1562.  Religious   war  breaks  out  in   France;    Coligny, 
Protestant  leader.     Sir  John  Hawkins  introduces 
slavery  into  the  West  Indies. 

1564.  Shakespeare  born.  (d.  1 6 16.)  Galileo  born.  (d.  1642). 

1565.  Slaughter  of  the  French  Huguenot  settlement  in 
Florida  by  the  Spaniards,  and  the  founding  of  St. 
Augustin.      Famous  defense  of  Malta  by  Knights 
of  St.  John  from  attacks  of  the  Turks. 

1566.  The  Netherlands  revolt  against  Spanish  rule. 

1567.  Duke  Alva  arrives  in   the  Netherlands.     French 
religious  war.     Mary  Stuart  deposed.     Her  son,. 
James  VI,  of  Scotland,  accedes  to  the  throne. 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA,  99 

1568.  Inquisition  condemns  all  the  inhabitants  of  the 
Netherlands  to  death. 

1571.  Don  John  of  Austria  aided  by  Spanish,  Venetian 
and   papal   squadrons,  defeats  the  Turks  in  the 
famous  naval  battle  of  Lepanto.     Kepler,  German 
astronomer,  discoverer  of  "  Kepler's  Laws,"  born, 
(d.  1630.) 

1572.  Massacre   of   Protestants  in   France  on  St.  Bar- 
tholomew's Day.     Marriage  of  Henry  of  Navarre 
and  Margaret  of  Valois. 

1577.    Drake  circumnavigates  the  globe. 
1580.    Philip  II.  of  Spain  conquers  Portugal. 

1583.  Adoption  of  the  Gregorian  Calendar. 

1584.  Prince  of  Orange  assassinated. 

1585.  Raleigh  attempts   to  plant  colonies  in  the  new 
world.     Richelieu  born.  (d.  1642.) 

1587.  Mary  Stuart  executed.     Henry  of  Navarre  meets 
with  some  success  against  the  Catholic  League. 

1588.  Defeat  of  Spanish  Armada. 

1589.  Catherine  de  Medici  dies.     Henry  III.  of  France 
last  of  the  Valois,  assassinated.     Henry   IV.  of 
Navarre,  first  of  the   Bourbon   kings  of  France, 
accedes  to  the  throne. 

1590.  Henry  IV.  defeats  the  League  in  the  battle  of 
Ivry. 

1594.  Henry  IV.,  having  adjured  Protestantism  and 
solidified  the  factions  of  France,  ends  the  civil 
war  that  had  lasted  forty  years,  and  accedes  to 
the  throne. 

1596.  The  Turks  defeat  the  Bohemians  and  Hungarians 
with  great  slaughter  on  the  plain  of  Cerestes. 
English  and  Dutch  capture  Cadiz.  Descartes, 
French  metaphysician,  born.  (d.  1650.) 

1598.  Navarre,  by  Edict  of  Nantes,  grants  religious 
toleration  in  France.  Philip  II.  of  Spain  dies 
leaving  a  ruined  navy  and  an  exhausted  kingdom. 


IOO  THE    PASSING   OF    SPAIN    AND 

CHAPTER  III. 
DECLINE  OF  SPANISH  POWER. 

Though  Philip  II.  had  suffered  some  severe  defeats, 
his  power  was  by  no  means  broken,  and  he  left  his  son  an 
empire  magnificent  in  its  extent.  Its  territory  on  the 
American  continent  alone  equaled  in  area  twice  that  of 
the  inhabitable  part  of  Europe. 

Philip  III.  — 1598-1621. 

Philip  III.,  the  son  of  Philip  II.  by  his  fourth  wife 
Anne  of  Austria,  was  born  1578,  succeeded  his  father 
to  the  throne  of  Spain  in  1598,  and  died  1621.  He 
inherited  all  the  bigotry  and  ambition  of  his  father  with 
none  of  his  ability. 

The  Moors  had  been  driven  into  rebellion  by  tyran- 
nical edicts  which  they  could  not  possibly  obey,  and  now 
the  final  expulsion  of  all  the  race  was  ordered.  They 
were  given  three  days'  time  in  which  to  comply,  and  any 
remaining  after  that  limit  were  to  be  put  to  death 
together  with  any  Christians  who  afforded  them  relief. 
Agriculture  and  industry  by  this  act  received  blows  from 
which  they  never  recovered  in  Spain.  Spain  has  never 
since  brought  agriculture  to  the  high  state  in  which  ^he 
Moors  left  it. 

The  Spanish  Moors  Persecuted  into  Rebellion. 

"The  constancy  with  which  the  Moors  adhered  to  the 
faith  of  their  fathers  gave  great  scandal  to  the  old  Chris- 
tians, especially  to  the  clergy.  A  commission  was 
appointed  to  examine  into  the  matter.  Among  its  mem- 
bers we  find  the  Duke  of  Alva;  at  its  head,  "Espinoso, 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  IOI 

the  favorite  minister  of  Philip.  After  due  deliberation 
the  Junta  came  to  the  decision  that  the  only  remedy  for 
the  present  evil  was  to  lay  the  axe  at  the  root  of  it,  to 
cut  off  those  associations  which  connected  the  Moors 
with  their  earlier  history  and  which  were  so  many  ob- 
stacles in  the  way  of  their  present  conversion.  They 
should  be  interdicted  from  speaking  or  writing  Arabic, 
and  were  to  use  only  Castilian.  Their  family  names 
were  to  be  exchanged  for  Spanish  ones.  All  written 
instruments  and  legal  documents  were  void  unless 
written  in  Castilian.  Three  years'  time  was  allowed  to 
change  the  entire  language  of  the  people.  They  \vere 
required  to  change  their  national  dress  for  that  of  the 
Spaniards  ;  the  women  to  go  abroad  with  their  faces 
unveiled,  a  scandalous  thing  among  Mohammedans. 
Their  weddings  were  to  be  conducted  in  public  after 
Christian  forms.  These  several  provisions  were  to  be 
enforced  by  penalties  of  the  sternest  kind.  The  public 
crier  from  an  elevated  place  read  in  the  Arabic  language 
the  royal  ordinance.  Some  of  the  weaker  sort  gave 
way  to  piteous  and  pained  exclamations,  wringing  their 
hands  in  an  agony  of  grief;  others  of  sterner  temper 
broke  forth  into  menaces  and  fierce  invections  accom- 
panied with  the  most  fierce  gesticulations ;  others  listened 
with  that  dossed  and  determined  air  which  showed  that 

OO 

the  mood  was  not  less  dangerous  that  it  was  silent. 
They  had  only  to  choose  between  implicit  obedience 
and  open  rebellion.  It  wras  not  strange  that  they  chose 
the  latter." 

Netherlands. 

It  was  during  Philip  III.'s  reign  that  Spain  lost  all 
claim  to  the  richest  of  her  provinces,  the  seven  northern 
states  of  the  Netherlands,  the  scene  of  so  much  blood- 
shed and  the  source  of  such  a  fatal  drain  on  her  treasury. 
These  provinces  had  been  recognized  as  independent 


IO2  THE    PASSING   OF    SPAIN    AND 

during  the  reign  of  Philip  II.  by  all  nations  except 
Spain,  and  now,  after  about  sixty  years'  war,  Spain  so 
far  recognized  them  by  the  treaty  of  Antwerp  as  to  con- 
clude a  ten  years'  truce. 

The  soil  of  the  Netherlands  is  made  up  wholly  of 
varying  deposits  from  fresh  and  salt  water  as  the  battle 
between  land  and  sea  surged  back  and  forth.  Nearly 
all  of  the  Netherlands  to-day  is  too  low  for  natural 
drainage,  and  a  large  part  of  it  is  from  16  to  18  feet  be- 
low sea  level.  It  is  protected  from  the  ocean  by  numer- 
ous embankments,  called  dikes,  some  of  them  60  feet 
high.  On  the  tops  of  the  dikes  run  the  roads  and  canals 
which  empty  into  the  rivers.  Along  the  banks  are 
numerous  windmills,  which  pump  the  water  from  the 
ditches  to  the  canals.  Many  of  the  canals  are  navigable. 

The  Netherlands,  to  which  Charles  V.  acceded,  com- 
prised the  seventeen  provinces  made  up  of  the  four 
duchies  of  Brabant,  Limbourg,  Luxemburg  and  Guelder- 
land,  the  seven  counties  of  Artois,  Nainault,  Flanders, 
Namur,  Zutphen,  Holland,  Zealand,  the  five  lordships  of 
Friesland,  Mechlin,  Utrecht,  Overyssel  and  Groningen, 
and  the  margraviate  of  Antwerp.  The  four  provinces 
on  the  French  border,  where  French  was  spoken,  were 
called  Walloon.  They  were  merely  a  loose  confedera- 
tion without  any  supreme  authority.  Each  province  was 
independent,  governed  by  its  own  laws  and  constitution. 

It  was  during  the  time  of  Philip  II.  that  the  Seven 
Northern  Provinces,  Holland,  Zealand,  Utrecht,  Guel- 
derland,  Overyssel,  Groningen  and  Friesland,  revolted, 
formed  a  republic,  and  chose  William  of  Nassau, 
Prince  of  Orange,  as  their  leader,  with  the  title  of 
stadtholder. 

It  was  during  the  reign  of  Philip  III.  that  the  famous 
Thirty  Years'  War  broke  out.  It  began  May,  1618,  by 
the  Protestant  nobles  of  Bohemia  (then  a  province  of 
Germany,  now  a  part  of  Austria)  rebelling  against  Fer- 


THE   ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  10$ 

dinand,  Archduke  of  Austria,  who  was  elected  Emperor 
of  Germany  1619.  The  Netherlands  was  now  the  scene 
of  a  bitter  quarrel  between  the  Lutherans  under  John  of 
Barneveldt  and  the  Calvinists,  under  Maurice,  and 
the  ten  years'  truce  expiring,  the  time  seemed  ripe  to 
Philip  when  he  could  take  advantage  of  this  and  regain 
what  Spain  had  ever  refused  to  acknowledge  as  wholly 
lost  The  temper  of  his  people  also  compelled  him  to 
take  the  part  of  Catholicism  against  the  revolting  Pro- 
testants. "  The  time  had  come  for  securing  her  road  to 
the  Netherlands,  as  well  as  for  taking  her  old  stand  as 
the  champion  of  Catholicism.  Spinola,  the  Spanish 
general  in  the  low  countries,  was  ordered  to  march  to 
the  aid  of  the  Emperor,  and  the  famous  Spanish  bat- 
talions were  soon  moving  up  the  Rhine.  Their  march 
turned  the  local  struggle  in  Bohemia  into  a  European 
war."* 

Philip  died  about  1621,  before  the  whole  effect  of  his 
joining  with  the  Emperor  could  be  felt. 

"  The  affairs  of  Spain  were  in  a  deplorable  condition, 
with  seventy  per  cent,  of  her  domestic  trade  and  ninety 
per  cent,  of  her  foreign  trade  in  the  hands  of  aliens. 
Philip  III.  was  insane  enough  to  close  Spanish  harbors 
and  deliberately  put  an  end  to  commerce,  thus  com- 
pleting the  ruin  which  his  father  had  failed  to  effect. 

More  gold  and  silver  had  been  coming  into  Spain  in 
one  generation  than  had  been  accumulated  in  all  the 
previous  ages  of  history,  and  yet  the  country  became 
burdened  with  debt."  t 

Synopsis  of  Events  Contemporary  with  this  Period. 

I599-    Oliver  Cromwell  born.     (d.  1658.) 

1600.    Publication     of     Shakespeare's    "Henry    IV.;" 

*  Green's  "History  of  the  English  People." 
f  Yeates'  "Commerce." 


IO4  THE    PASSING   OF    SPAIN    AND 

"Henry  V.;"  "Much  Ado  About  Nothing;" 
"  Merchant  of  Venice,"  and  "  Midsummer  Night's 
Dream."  Bruno  burned  at  the  stake  for  having 
written  heretical  books. 

1603.  Death  of  Elizabeth,  last  of  the  Tudors.  Acces- 
sion of  James  VI.  of  Scotland,  James  I.  of 
England,  the  first  of  the  Stuart  kings.  The 
French  found  colonies  in  Nova  Scotia. 

1605.  Conspiracy  of  Catesby  and  Guido  Fawkes  to  blow 
up  the  English  parliament,  known  as  "  The  Gun- 
powder Plot." 

1607.  The  English  found  the  first  settlement  at  James- 
town, Virginia.  Milton  born.  (d.  1674.) 

1609.  Discovery  of  the  Hudson  river  by  Henry  Hudson, 
in  the  employ  of  the  Dutch.     Publication   of  the 
Catholic   Douay   Bible.     Final   expulsion  of  the 
Moors  from  Spain.     Galileo  invents  the  telescope 
and  discovers  Jupiter's  moons,  thus  proving  the 
Copernican  theory. 

1610.  Henry  of   Navarre,  king  of  France,   assassinated 
by   Ravaillac.     Louis   XIII.  accedes    under  the 
regency  of  Marie  de  Medici. 

1611.  Montreal  founded  by  Champlain.     Charles  IX. 
of  Sweden,  dies.     Gustavus  Adolphus  succeeds  to 
the  throne.     Publication  of   King   James'    Bible 
(Authorized  version).     Birth  of  Turenne,  one  of 
the  ablest  marshals  of  France,     (d.  1675.) 

1613.  English  destroy  French  colony  at  Port  Royal  in 
Nova  Scotia.     Michael  Romanoff  accedes  to  the 
Russian  throne,  the  first  of  the  reigning  dynasty. 

1614.  The  last  States  General  (national  convention)  of 
France  held  prior  to  the   Revolution.     Raleigh's 
"  History  of  the  World  "  published. 

1615.  The  first  known  weekly  newspaper  regularly  pub- 
lished at  Frankfort-on-the-Main. 

1616.  War  begun  between   Sweden  and   Poland.     Cer- 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  1 05 

vantes,   Spanish   dramatist  and   author  of  "  Don 
Quixote  "  dies. 

1618.  The  Protestants  of  Bohemia  (then  a  province  of 
Germany,   now  a  province  of  Austria- Hungary), 
revolt  and  begin  the  Thirty  Years'  War.     As  a 
result,  eventually,  all  the   Protestant  and  Catholic 
powers    of    Europe   were  arrayed    against    each 
other.     "  This,  which  had  been  a  civil  war  at  the 
first,  did  not  continue  such  for  long,  or  rather,  it 
united   all  the  dreadfulness  of  a  civil  war  and  a 
foreign.     It  was  not  long  before  the  hosts  which 
trampled  the  German  soil  had  in  large  part  ceased 
to  be  German,  every  region  of  Europe  sending  its 
children,  and,  as  it  would  seem,  of  those  whom  it 
must  have  been  gladdest  to  be  rid  of." 

"  The  bitterest  irony  of  all  was  that  this  war, 
which  claimed  at  the  outset  to  be  waged  for  the 
highest  religious  objects,  for  the  glory  of  God, 
and  for  the  highest  interests  of  His  church,  should 
be  signalized  by  a  more  shameless  treading  under 
foot  of  all  laws,  human  and  divine,  disgraced  by 
worse  and  wickeder  outrages  against  God,  and 
against  man,  the  image  of  God,  than  probably 
any  war  which  modern  Christendom  has  seen."  * 
Three-quarters  of  the  population  of  many  of  the 
German  states  were  killed  or  driven  abroad,  and 
in  more  than  a  century  certain  provinces  had 
not  regained  their  former  prosperity.  Gustavus 
Adolphus  of  Sweden,  during  his  life,  was  the  chief 
leader  of  the  Protestant  officers.  Tilly  and  Wal- 
lenstein  were  the  best  leaders  of  the  Imperial 
officers.  Wallenstein  was  an  able  general,  but 
utterly  unscrupulous,  and  was  plotting  the  over- 
throw of  his  own  party  when  assassinated. 

1619.  Negro  slavery  introduced  into  Virginia. 

*  R.  C.  Trench.     "Gustavus  Adolphus  in  Germany." 


IO6  THE    PASSING    OF    SPAIN    AND 

1620.  Puritans  land    at    Plymouth.     Bacon's  "  Novum 
Organum  "  published 

1621.  First     Thanksgiving     Day    observed     in    New 
England. 

Philip  IV.— 1621-1665. 

Son  of  Philip  III.  and  Margaret  of  Austria,  born  1605 
married  Isabella  of  France  16 15,  succeeded  to  the  throne 
on  the  death  of  his  father  in  1621. 

The  ten  years'  truce  with  the  Seven  Northern  Prov- 
inces of  the  Netherlands  having  now  expired,  and  the 
Lutherans  and  Calvinists  being  engaged  in  a  quarrel 
there,  Philip  thought  this  a  good  opportunity  to  recover 
his  lost  dominion.  At  first  he  met  with  some  success  in 
his  land  operations,  but  the  Dutch  had  been  building  up 
a  steady  trade  with  the  East  Indies  and  Brazil,  and,  since 
the  defeat  of  the  Spanish  Armada,  had  risen  to  be  the 
most  powerful  nation  on  the  sea,  and  in  1628  captured 
his  "silver  fleet"  with  about  $5,000,000  in  pure  silver. 
Under  Admiral  Van  Tromp  they  won  two  crushing 
naval  victories  in  1639,  and  Spain,  thoroughly  exhausted, 
made  her  final  peace  and  recognized  their  independence 
in  1648,  eighty  years  after  William  of  Nassau,  Prince  of 
Orange,  had  issued  his  call  to  the  Seven  Northern 
Provinces  to  take  up  arms  in  defense  of  their  liberties, 
Richelieu,  that  great  statesman  of  France,  coming  into 
power  in  1624,  brought  one  of  the  greatest  intellects  of 
any  age  to  bear  against  them.  The  Spanish  diplomatists 
were  no  match  for  the  astute  Frenchman,  and  the  French 
under  "  The  Great  Conde "  almost  totally  destroyed 
their  army  at  Rocroi  in  1643,  an^  shattered  the  reputa- 
tion of  the  "  Terrible  Spanish  Infantry."  The  treaty  of 
Westphalia  in  1648  put  an  end  to  the  Thirty  Years' 
War,  left  Spain  without  an  ally,  and  France  free  to  give 
her  undivided  attention. 

Mazarin,  the  minister  of  France  who  succeeded  upon 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  IO/ 

the  death  of  Richelieu  in  1642,  made  peace  with  Crom- 
well, and,  by  agreeing  to  turn  over  Dunkirk  to  him,  se- 
cured 5,000  "  Ironsides "  who  were  perhaps  the  best 
soldiers  of  Europe,  and  with  this  assistance,  Turenne,  the 
great  French  general,  was  irresistible. 

Portugal  revolted  in  1640  and  ever  after  maintained 
her  independence. 

The  treaty  of  the  Pyrenees  was  concluded  between 
France  and  Spain,  1659,  at  the  expense  of  considerable 
territory  to  Spain,  and  the  daughter  of  the  Spanish  king 
married  Louis  XIV.  of  France. 

"  From  that  moment,  indeed,  Spain  sank  into  a  strange 
decrepitude.  Robbed  of  the  chief  source  of  her  wealth 
by  the  independence  of  Holland,  weakened  at  home  by 
the  revolt  of  Portugal,  her  infantry  annihilated  by  Conde 
in  his  victory  of  Rocroi,  her  fleet  ruined  by  the  Dutch, 
her  best  blood  drained  away  to  the  Indies,  the  energies 
of  her  people  destroyed  by  the  suppression  of  all  liberty, 
civil  or  religious,  her  intellectual  life  crippled  by  the  ex- 
pulsion of  the  Moors,  by  financial  oppression  and  by  the 
folly  of  her  colony  system,  the  kingdom  which  under 
Philip  II.  had  aimed  at  the  empire  of  the  world  lay  help- 
less and  exhausted  under  Philip  IV."  * 

Synopsis  of  Events  Contemporary  with  this  Period. 

1622.  "The   Weekly   Newes,"  first  newspaper  in  Eng- 
land regularly  published.     Moliere,  author,  born. 
(d.i673.) 

1623.  "The     First    Folio"    edition    of    Shakespeare's 
plays  published. 

1624.  England,   Holland  and    Denmark   combine  with 

the  Protestants  of  Germany.  George  Fox,  founder 
of  Quakerism,  born.  (d.  1690.)  Richelieu's  min- 
inistry  (1624-1642)  begins.  He  crushes  the 
power  of  the  nobles  and  the  Huguenots,  increases 

*Green's  "History  of  the  English  People." 


IO8  THE    PASSING    OF    SPAIN    AND 

the  power  of  the  throne ,  aids  the  Protestant 
German  princes  in  the  Thirty  Years'  War  to 
defeat  Austria,  the  ancient  rival  of  France. 
"  Of  the  Cardinal  there  remains  nothing  but  the 
memory  of  his  power  and  the  great  services  he 
rendered  his  country.  He  had  no  conception  of 
that  noblest  ambition,  governing  a  free  country, 
but  he  was  one  of  the  greatest,  the  most  effective, 
and  the  boldest,  as  well  as  the  most  prudent  ser- 
vant France  ever  had." 

1625.  James  I.  dies.  Charles  I.,  his  son,  accedes  to  the 
throne.  Trouble  between  the  king  and  Par- 
liament now  begins.  Wallenstein  and  his  army 
now  employed  against  the  Protestants.  Frencn 
Huguenots  revolt. 

1627.  England  assists  the   Huguenots  in  their  revolt. 
Richelieu    besieges    Rochelle.      Bossuet,    great 
pulpit  orator,  born.     (d.  1 704.) 

1628.  Duke    of    Buckingham    assassinated.       Harvey 
publishes  his  "  Discovery  of   the   Circulation  of 
the     Blood."       Bunyan,    author     of    "  Pilgrim's 
Progress,  born.     (d.  1688.) 

1629.  Charles  I.  dissolves   Parliament  and  arrests  the 
speaker. 

1630.  "Day  of  the  Dupes,"  when   Richelieu  wins  over 
his  opponents.     Wallenstein  dismissed  from  com- 
mand of   Imperial  forces  in  Thirty  Years'  War. 

1631.  Tilly   captures    Madgeburg    and    is    defeated    at 

Leipzig  by  Gustavus  Adolphus.  Dryden  born, 
(d.  1700.)  Publication  of  the  first  weekly  news- 
paper in  France. 

1632.  Battle   of    Lech.     Tilly  defeated    and    killed  in 
battle   with    Gustavus   Adolphus.       Wallenstein 
recalled    to    cc-mmand    forces    of    the    League. 
Battle  of    Lutzen.      Gustavus    Adolphus    killed, 
but  Protestants  are  victorious. 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  IOQ 

1634.  Assassination  of  Wallenstein.  Sweden  defeated 
at  Nordenlingen  by  the  League.  Levy  of  "  ship- 
money  "  in  England.  Milton's  "  Comus  "  acted. 

1636.  Harvard  College  founded.  Roger  Williams  ban- 
ished and  founds  Providence. 

1640.  Portugal  regains  her  independence.  Peruvian 
bark  introduced  into  use  in  Europe.  Dissolution 
of  "  Lonsr  Parliament." 

• 

1642.  Beginning  of  England's   Civil  War  (1642-1646.) 
Battle    of   Eds:ehill.     Richelieu  dies.     Sir    Isaac 

O 

Newton  born.     (d.  1727.) 

1643.  Louis    XIII.    dies.      Succeeded     by    Anne    of 
Austria  as  regent  for  Louis  XIV.     Accession  of 
the  Mazarin  ministry.     Conde  (the  Great)  defeats 
the  Spanish  at  the  battle  of  Rocroi. 

1645.  Cromwell  defeats  the  Royalists  at  Naseby. 

1646.  Charles  surrenders  to  the  Scottish  army. 

1648.  Cromwell    wins   the    battle   of    Preston.     Termi- 
nation  of   Thirty  Years'  War.     Peace   of  West- 
phalia.    Alsace  ceded  to  France.     Separation  of 
Switzerland   from   the   empire.     Spain    acknowl- 
edges the  independence  of  the  United  Provinces. 
Election  of  John  Casimir,  king  of  Poland. 

1649.  Charles  I.  executed.     The  Commonwealth  estab- 
lished.    French  war  of  the  Fronde  ends. 

1650.  Charles  II.  invades  Scotland.     Defeated  at  battle 
of  Dunbar  by  Cromwell.     Publication  of  Baxter's 
"  Saints'     Everlasting     Rest."       Publication     of 
Jeremy   Taylor's   "  Holy  Living."     Maryborough 
born.     (d.  1722.) 

1651.  Charles  II.  invades  England  with  a  Scotch  army. 
Cromwell  defeats  him  at  battle  of  Worcester. 

1652.  Conde,  the  Great  (born   1621,  died    1681),  one  of 
France's  ablest  generals  of  any  age,  and  victor  of 
Rocroi,  goes  over  to  Spain.     End  of  the  war  of 
the   Fronde.     Naval   war   between   English  and 


HO  THE    PASSING   OF    SPAIN    AND 

Dutch.  At  the  close  of  the  year  Van  Tromp, 
the  Dutch  admiral,  sails  the  channel  with  a 
broom  at  his  mast-head  as  a  signal  of  his  tri- 
umph. Dutch  make  their  first  settlement  at  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope. 

1653.  Cromwell  dissolves  the  "  Rump  Parliament,"  and 
the  Protectorate  established.  Publication  of 
Isaac  Walton's  "  Complete  Angler."  Mazarin 
returns  to  power  in  France. 

1655.  Alliance  of  England  and  Franc  against  Spain. 
English  capture  Jamaica. 

1658.  Dunkirk  captured  from  the  Spaniards  and  given 
up   by   the    French  to    England.       Cromwell    is 
succeeded  by  his  son  Richard.     Seizure   of  the 
Mogul  throne  of  India. 

1659.  Treaty   of     the    Pyrenees    between    France    and 
Spain.     Louis  XIV.  marries  the  Spanish  infanta. 

1660.  English  army  under  General   Monk   declares  for 
Charles  II.  and  seats  him  on  the  English  throne. 
War  between  Austria  and  Turkey. 

1662.  Persecution  of  the  Scottish  Covenanters.  Charles 
I.  sells  Dunkirk  to  the  French. 

1605.  The  "Five  Mile  Act"  enforced  against  non- 
conformists. London  visited  by  the  plague. 
War  between  English  and  the  Dutch.  English 
fleet  under  the  Duke  of  York  and  Prince  Rupert 
won  a  partial  victory  over  the  Dutch  under 
Opdan  and  Van  Tromp. 

Charles  II.  — 1665-1700. 

Son  of  Philip  IV.  and  Maria  Anna  of  Austria.  He 
was  but  four  years  old  at  the  death  of  his  father,  and  the 
government  was  administered  by  his  mother,  as  regent, 
until  1680,  when  he  succeeded  to  the  throne. 

He  was  the  last  of  the  Spanish  House  of  Hapsbur^, 
feeble  in  body,  and  even  more  poorly  equipped  in  intel- 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  Ill 

lect.  Under  him  Spain  suffered  great  loss  of  territory, 
Louis  XIV.  of  France  laying  claim  to  part  of  the  Spanish 
Netherlands  in  behalf  of  his  wife  and  making  good  the 
claim  with  an  army  of  50,000  men  under  the  great  mar- 
shal Turenne. 

The  population  in  Spain  had  shrunken  from  40,000,- 
ooo  under  the  most  prosperous  period  of  the  Moors  until 
now  it  contained  no  more  than  6,000,000  people,  and  the 
finances  were  exhausted. 

Charles  II.  had  no  male  heir,  and  the  question  of  suc- 
cession to  the  throne  was  absorbing  the  attention  of  all 
the  ambitious  rulers  of  Europe.  The  problem  "balance 
of  power,"  of  which  we  hear  so  much  nowadays,  was  then 
a  prominent  one,  and  William  III.  of  England  was  its 
strongest  advocate.  The  right  of  succession  was  a  most 
complicated  one.  By  law  and  tradition,  on  the  extinction 
of  a  male  line  the  crown  should  have  passed  to  the  near- 
est female  or  her  heir.  Charles  had  two  sisters ;  the  elder, 
Maria  Theresa,  was  the  wife  of  Louis  XIV.,  but  she  had 
renounced  her  claim  to  the  throne.  In  consideration  of 
this  it  had  been  agreed  that  she  should  be  paid  a  dowry, 
but  as  the  dowry  had  never  been  paid  her  husband  re- 
pudiated the  renunciation.  The  other  sister,  Margaret, 
had  made  no  renunciation,  but  she  was  dead,  and  had 
left  only  a  daughter  as  heir,  Maria,  who  was  the  wife  of 
the  elector  of  Bavaria.  When  Charles  I.  resigned  his 
imperial  possessions  to  his  brother  Ferdinand  it  was 
agreed  in  a  family  compact  that  if  either  line  became  ex- 
tinct the  other  should  accede  to  its  territorial  possessions, 
and  the  Austrian  branch  of  that  House  now  prepared  to 
put  forward  its  claims. 

As  the  end  of  the  wretched  king  drew  near,  plots  and 
counterplots  among  the  sovereigns  of  the  powers  for  the 
partition  of  his  territory  were  made.  He  died  1700. 
leaving  the  crown  by  will  to  Philip  of  Anjou,  the  grand- 
son of  Louis  XIV.  of  France,  on  the  condition  that  the 


I  I  2  THE    PASSING    OF    SPAIN    AND 

prince  should  renounce  all  claim  to  the  throne  of  France. 
Spanish  pride,  even  in  death,  would  not  allow  him  to 
consider  for  a  moment  the  partition  of  his  kingdom  or 
the  contingency  of  its  becoming  but  a  province  of  a 
more  powerful  empire. 

His  reign  had  been  one  of  almost  uninterrupted  dis- 
aster, and  the  unfortunate  and  once  powerful  kingdom 
was  on  the  very  verge  of  a  great  collapse.  It  now  sank 
to  the  lowest  depth  of  wretchedness,  and  from  such  a 
condition  has  never  fully  recovered,  but  "  so  vast  was  the 
extent  of  its  empire,  so  enormous  the  resource  which  re- 
mained to  it,  that  under  a  vigorous  ruler  men  believed 
its  old  power  would  at  once  return.  To  add  such  a 
dominion  as  this  to  the  dominion  either  of  Louis  or  of 
the  emperor  would  be  to  undo  at  a  blow  the  work  of 
European  independence  which  William  had  wrought."  ! 

"  The  news  of  the  secret  treaties  of  partition  between 
France  and  Germany  stirred  the  Spaniards  to  deep  an^er. 
They  cared  little  whether  a  French  or  an  Austrian 
prince  sat  on  the  throne  of  Charles  II.,  but  their  pride 
revolted  against  the  dismemberment  of  the  monarchy  by 
the  loss  of  its  Italian  dependencies.  The  nobles  dreaded 
the  loss  of  their  vast  estates  in  Italy  and  of  the  lucrative 
posts  they  held  as  governors  there.  Even  the  dying 
king  shared  the  anger  of  his  subjects."!  It  was  evident 
that  upon  the  death  of  Charles  all  Europe  was  likely  to 
be  plunged  into  war. 

Synopsis  of  Events  Contemporary  with  this  Period. 

1666.  The  great  fire  in  London.  Two  tremendous 
naval  battles  between  Dutch  and  English.  Four 
days'  naval  fight  between  English  fleet  under 
General  Monk  and  Prince  Rupert  and  Dutch 
fleet  under  De  Ruyter  and  Van  Tromp,  with  vic- 

*  Green's  "  History  of  the  English  People." 
f  Green. 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  113 

toryfor  the    Dutch  (June).     Second  engagement 
in  July,  with  victory  for  the  English. 

1667.  The  victorious  Dutch  fleet  sails  up  the  Thames. 
Publication  of  Milton's  "  Paradise  Lost." 

1668.  Alliance  of  England,  Holland  and  Sweden  against 
France.     John  Casimir,  king  of  Poland,  abdicates. 

1670.  In  consideration  of  receiving  an  annual  subsidy 
from  the  French  king,  Charles  II.  makes  a  treaty 
with  Louis  XIV.  of  France,  betrays  his  alliance 
and  agrees  to  profess  himself  a  Catholic. 

1672.  Alliance  of  England  and  France  against  the 
Dutch.  Prince  of  Orange  recalled  to  power  in 
Holland.  Peter  the  Great,  czar  of  Russia,  born. 
(d.  1725.) 

1674.  Peace  declared  between  English  and  the  Dutch 
in  New  Netherlands  (New  York),  which  is  ceded 
to  the  English.  John  Zobieski  elected  king  of 
Poland.  Isaac  Watts  born.  (d.  1748.) 

1678.  Popish  plot  in  England,  Titus  Oakes  pretended 
informer.  Publication  of  Bunyan's  "  Pilgrim's 
Progress." 

1682.  La  Salle  explores  the  whole  length  of  the  Missis- 
sippi river.     Peter  the  Great  accedes  to  throne  of 
Russia. 

1683.  Turks  invade    Hungary  and  Austria  and  besiege 
Vienna,   which   is  relieved   by  Sobieski,  king  of 
Poland.     Philadelphia  founded  by  William  Penn. 

1685.  Death  of  Charles  II.  Accession  of  his  brother, 
James  II.  Rebellion  of  the  Duke  of  Monmouth; 
defeated  at  Sedgemoor.  The  "  Bloody  Assizes  " 
of  Judge  Jeffreys.  The  revocation  of  the  Edict 
of  Nantes  by  Louis  XIV.  of  France.  Streets  of 
London  first  lighted. 

1687.  Publication  of  Newton's  "  Principia." 

1688.  Flight    of    James    II.     Arrival    in    England   of 
Prince  of  Orange. 

8 


114  THE    PASSING    OF    SPAIN    AND 

1689.  Crown  settled  on  William  and  Mary.     James  II. 
arrives  in  Ireland,  and  war  begins  there. 

1690.  First  congress  of  American    colonies   called   to 
unite  them  for  mutual  protection  against  the  sav- 
ages.     England,     Holland,    Spain,     Savoy    and 
emperor  of  Germany  allied  against   Louis  XIV. 
of  France.     French  fleet  defeats  combined  Eng- 
lish and    Dutch   fleet  off  Beachy  Head.     Battle 
of  Boyne    in    Ireland,   and    flight  of    James    II. 
Issue   of    Locke's    "Essay   Concerning    Human 
Understanding." 

1692.  Salem  witchcraft  in  Massachusetts.     Massacre  of 
Glencoe  in  Scotland.     France  defeated  in  naval 
battle  of  La  Hogue  by  English  and  Dutch  fleets, 
and  invasion  of  England  prevented. 

1693.  William  and  Mary  College  founded  in  Virginia. 

1694.  The  Bank  of  England   founded.     Voltaire  born, 
(d.  1778.) 

1696.  Sobieski,  king  of  Poland,  dies,  and  crown  is  sold 
to  Frederick  Augustus,  elector  of  Saxony. 

1697.  Peace  of   Ryswick.     Prince   Eugene  defeats   the 
Turks  at  Zenta.     Charles  XII.  (The  Madman  of 
the    North)  accedes   to    the    throne    of  Sweden. 
Peter  the  Great  studies  ship-building  in   Holland 
disguised  as  a  common  workman. 

1699.  Peace   of    Carlowitz    between    Turkey,    Russia, 
Poland,  Venice  and  the  emperor,  and   the  sultan 
loses  nearly  half  of  his  European  dominions. 

1700.  Charles   XII.  of   Sweden    begins    his  campaign 
against  the  Danes  and  Russians. 

Philip  V.     1700-1746. 

Philip  of  Anjou,  second  son  of  Louis  the  dauphin,  son 
of  Louis  XIV.  (Le  Grand)  of  France. 

The  Spanish  House  of  Hapsburg  ended  in  1700  with 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  115 

the  death  of  Charles  II.,  and  the  wars  of  the  Spanish 
Succession  now  took  place. 

With  Philip  V.  began  the  line  of  Spanish  Bourbon 
kings,  who  have  held  it,  with  two  interruptions,  down  to 
the  present. 

On  the  death  of  Charles  II.,  the  king  of  France  acted 
with  his  characteristic  energy.  "  Louis  well  knew  that  a 
general  European  war  would  follow  if  he  accepted  for  his 
house  the  crown  thus  bequeathed.  But  he  had  been 
preparing  for  this  crisis  throughout  his  reign.  He  sent 
his  grandson  into  Spain  as  King  Philip  V.,  of  that 
country,  addressing  to  him  on  his  departure  the  memor- 
able words,  '  There  are  no  longer  any  Pyrenees.'"* 

"  The  empire  which  now  received  the  grandson  of 
Louis  as  its  king,  comprised,  besides  Spain  itself,  the 
strongest  part  of  the  Netherlands,  Sardinia,  Sicily, 
Naples,  the  principality  of  Milan  and  other  possessions 
in  Italy,  the  Philippines  in  Asia,  and  in  the  new  world, 
besides  California  and  Florida,  the  greater  part  of  Cen- 
tral and  South  America. 

"  Philip  was  well  received  in  Madrid,  where  he  was 
crowned  as  King  Philip  V.  in  the  beginning  of  1701. 
The  distant  portions  of  his.  empire  sent  him  their  adhe- 
sion, and  the  House  of  Bourbon,  either  by  its  French  or 
Spanish  troops,  now  had  occupation  both  of  the  kingdom 
of  Francis  I.  (of  France)  and  of  the  fairest  and  amplest 
portions  of  the  empire  of  the  great  rival  of  Francis, 
Charles  V.  (Charles  I.  of  Spain). 

"  Loud  was  the  wrath  of  Austria,  whose  princes  were 
the  rival  claimants  of  the  Bourbons,  for  the  empire  of 
Spain.  Deep  was  the  indignation  of  William  III.  of 
England,  which,  though  not  so  loud,  was  far  more  ener- 
getic. By  his  exertions  a  league  against  the  House  of 
Bourbon  was  formed  between  England,  Holland  and 
the  Austrian  empire,  which  was  subsequently  joined  by 

*  Dyer's  "  History  of  Modern  Europe." 


Il6  THE    PASSING    OF    SPAIN    AND 

the  king  of  Portugal  and  Prussia  (Prussia  was  recognized 
as  an  independent  kingdom  in  1701),  the  duke  of  Savoy 
and  by  Denmark.  Indeed,  the  alarm  throughout  Europe 
was  now  general  and  urgent.  It  was  evident  that  Louis 
aimed  at  consolidating  France  and  the  Spanish  dominions 
into  one  preponderating  empire.  Whether  the  formal 
union  of  the  two  crowns  was  likely  to  take  place  speedily 
or  not,  it  was  evident  that  the  resources  of  the  whole 
Spanish  monarchy  were  now  virtually  at  the  French 
king's  disposal.  Great  peril  seemed  to  menace  the 
Empire,  England,  Holland,  and  the  other  independent 
powers.  '  Spain  had  threatened  the  liberties  of  Europe 
in  the  end  of  the  i6th  century;  France  had  all  but  over- 
thrown them  in  the  close  of  the  i  yth.  How  then  could 
they  make  head  against  both,  united  under  such  a  mon- 
arch as  Louis  XIV.?" 

Revolts  speedily  broke  out  in  Italy,  and  in  1702  a 
combined  Dutch  and  English  force  landed  near  Cadiz 
and  began  an  attack  on  that  town.  The  death  of 
\\  illiam  III.  (1702)  deprived  the  League  of  the  services 
of  its  greatest  leader.  Scarcely  had  the  combined  forces 
landed,  when  quarrels  broke  out  among  the  leaders,  as  to 
precedence;  and  after  a  few  ineffectual  attempts  the 
expedition  \vas  abandoned,  but  on  the  way  home  they 
found  the  Spanish  treasure  fleet  at  Vigo  Bay,  and  cap- 
tured it  after  a  brillant  attack  and  a  gallant  defense. 

Some  of  the  Spanish  officers  of  Charles  II.  were  not 
wjll  satisfied  with  the  Bourbon  king,  and  the  Admiral 
of  Castile,  offended  by  the  loss  of  some  office,  went  over 
to  Portugal  and  used  his  influence  to  induce  that 
country  to  join  the  League.  This  they  did  in  1703, 
and  their  action  gave  the  League  a  valuable  base  of 
operation. 

All  the  contestants  to  the  throne  in  September,  1703, 
united  on  Charles,  Archduke  of  Austria,  son  of  the 

*  Dyer's  "  History  of  Modern  Europe." 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  I  I/ 

Emperor  of  Germany,  and  proclaimed  him  King  of 
Spain  under  the  title  of  Charles  III.  In  March,  1704, 
he  landed  in  Portugal  with  an  English  and  Dutch  army, 
intending  to  invade  Spain  from  that  side,  but  met  with 
no  success.  An  English  fleet  made  an  attack  on  Bar- 
celona, but  were  beaten  off.  On  their  return  they  made 
up  for  their  failure  by  capturing  Gibraltar. 

Gibraltar.    (Arabic,  Jabel-Tarik,  i.  e.,  Rock  of  Tarik.) 

"  The  importance  of  this  fortress,  the  key  to  the  Medi- 
terranean, was  not  then  sufficiently  esteemed,  and  its 
garrison  had  been  neglected  by  the  Spanish  government. 
A  party  of  English  sailors,  taking  advantage  of  a 
"  Saint's  Day,"  in  which  the  eastern  portion  of  the  fort- 
ress had  been  left  unguarded,  scaled  the  almost  inaccess- 
ible precipice,  while  at  the  same  time  another  party 
stormed  the  South  Mole  Head.  The  capture  of  this 
important  place  was  the  work  of  a  few  hours,  and 
Rooke  (British  Admiral)  took  possession  of  it  in  the 
name  of  the  king  of  England."* 

Gibraltar. 

This  celebrated  fortress  has  remained  in  the  hands  of 
the  British  since  1704,  although  frequently  besieged. 
It  sustained  under  General  Elliott  a  siege  of  three  years 
by  the  combined  French  and  Spanish  forces,  com- 
prising 40,000  soldiers,  47  first-class  battleships,  besides 
numerous  inferior  ships  and  floating  batteries. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  some  of  these  floating 
batteries  had  walls  seven  feet  in  thickness,  the  sloping 
sides  of  which  were  covered  with  iron. 

The  British  forces  consisted  of  about  7,000  soldiers, 
under  the  command  of  General  Elliott.  It  wras  he  who 
said:  "If  you  want  the  keys  of  Gibraltar  come  and 
take  them." 

*  Dyer's  "History  of  Modern   Europe." 


Ilg  THE    PASSING    OF    SPAIN    AND 

On  the  1 3th  of  September,  i/Si,  the  allied  forces 
rallied  for  the  final  attack ;  1 70  cannon  opened  on  the 
works,  and  40,000  soldiers  stood  ready  to  make  the 
assault  whenever  the  English  batteries  were  silenced. 
The  floating  batteries  were  finally  set  on  fire  by  an  all- 
day's  rain  of  red-hot  cannon  balls,  and  the  allied  forces 
compelled  to  withdraw,  with  a  loss  of  2,000  killed  and 
wounded,  while  the  loss  of  the  garrison  was  only  84.  A 
storm  followed  and  scattered  the  allied  fleet,  and  before 
they  could  resume,  the  plucky  Lord  Howe,  with  an 
English  fleet,  successfully  landed  supplies  for  the  gar- 
rison and  sailed  away  in  safety. 

The  rock  in  its  highest  point  is  about  1,400  feet  above 
the  sea,  and  the  part  facing  the  north  is  almost  perpen- 
dicular, while  the  eastern  side  is  broken  into  numerous 
precipices.  The  western  side  is  not  so  steep,  and 
between  the  foot  of  the  rock  and  the  sea  is  compara- 
tively level,  and  on  this  portion  the  town  is  built.  It  is 
connected  with  the  mainland  by  a  low,  sandy  isthmus, 
about  one  and  one-half  miles  long  and  three-quarters  of 
a  mile  wide,  which  is  known  as  the  neutral  ground. 

Enormous  sums  of  money  and  immense  labor  have 
been  expended  in  making  this  fortress  impregnable.  It 
is  honeycombed  by  vast  galleries  two  or  three  miles  in 
length  running  through  the  solid  rock,  wide  enough  for 
ammunition  wagons  and  connecting  one  point  with 
another.  Along  the  galleries,  facing  the  neutral  ground 
and  parts  most  likely  to  be  attacked,  there  are  frequent 
port-holes  mounting  the  most  formidable  product  of 
modern  gun-makers.  The  rock  has  also  the  ordinary 
defenses  of  a  regularly  fortified  place. 

Gibraltar  has  to  depend  upon  the  rainy  season  for  its 
water  supply,  and  the  roof  of  each  house  is  so  constructed 
as  to  carry  the  water  to  a  tank,  where  it  is  held  in 
reserve. 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  IIQ 

Allied  Invasion. 

In  1706  the  English  sent  a  formidable  expedition 
under  the  command  of  the  Earl  of  Peterborough,  which, 
co-operating  with  Archduke  Charles,  met  with  excellent 
success  on  the  eastern  coast  of  Spain.  Another  allied 
army,  profiting  by  treachery  within  the  Spanish  lines, 
captured  Cartegena,  and  with  it  the  best  arsenal  and  about 
all  the  ships  at  the  command  of  Spain.  They  soon  over- 
ran half  of  the  peninsula,  captured  Madrid,  and  within 
that  imperial  city  proclaimed  the  archduke  king  of  Spain. 

Difficulty  of  Conquering  Spain. 

"  It  seemed  that  the  struggle  had  terminated  in  favor 
of  the  archduke,  and  that  nothing  remained  for  Philip 
but  prompt  flight  into  the  dominion  of  his  grandfather. 
So  judged  those  who  were  ignorant  of  the  character  and 
habits  of  the  Spanish  people.  There  is  no  country  in 
Europe  which  is  so  easy  to  overrun  as  Spain;  there  is  no 
country  in  Europe  which  is  so  difficult  to  conquer. 
Nothing  can  be  more  contemptible  than  the  regular  mili- 
tary resistance  which  Spain  offers  to  an  invader;  nothing 
more  formidable  than  the  energy  which  she  puts  forth 
when  her  regular  military  resistance  has  been  beaten 
down.  Her  armies  have  long  borne  too  much  resem- 
blance to  mobs;  but  her  mobs  have  had,  in  an  unusual 
degree,  the  spirit  of  armies.  Every  peasant  procured  a 
fire-lock  or  a  pike ;  the  allies  were  masters  of  the  ground 
on  vhich  they  trod.  No  soldier  could  wander  a  hundred 
yards  from  the  main  body  of  the  invading  army  without 
imminent  risk  of  being  poinarded.  The  country  through 
which  the  conquerers  had  passed  to  Madrid,  and  which, 
as  they  thought,  had  been  subdued,  was  all  in  arms 
behind  them."  * 

The  allies  quarreled  among  themselves,  and  in  the  end 

*Macaulay. 


!2O  THE    PASSING    OF    SPAIN    AND 

were  forced  to  retreat  with  immense  losses  in  killed  and 
wounded  and  upwards  of  10,000  prisoners. 

The  following  year,  1 707,  they  again  advanced,  and  a 
fierce  battle  was  fought  at  Almanza.  The  unsettled  con- 
dition of  the  times  is  well  illustrated  by  the  commanders 
of  the  opposing  forces.  The  allies  were  commanded  by 
Ruvigni,  Earl  of  Galway  (a  French  refugee),  and  the 
Franco-Spanish  by  the  Duke  of  Berwick,  natural  son  of 
James  II.,  former  king  of  England.  A  regiment  of 
French  Huguenot,  refugees  under  the  celebrated  Jean 
Cavalier,  found  themselves  opposed  by  a  regular  French 
regiment  on  the,side  of  the  king  of  Spain,  and  the  two 
corps  almost  annihilated  each  other.  The  battle  was 
decided  by  the  superiority  of  the  cavalry,  and  the  English, 
Dutch  and  Portuguese  infantry  were  cut  to  pieces. 

The  allies  lost  about  5,000  killed  and  10,000  prisoners, 
and  this  victory  for  the  French  served  in  a  measure  to 
wipe  out  the  stain  of  their  defeat  at  Blenheim;  however, 
the  loss  of  the  Spanish  treasure  fleet,  which  was  captured 
by  the  English,  left  Charles  in  very  straitened  financial 
circumstances. 

The  allies  rallied  and  again  invaded  the  peninsula,  and 
took  possession  of  Madrid,  but  a  second  time  the  Cas- 
tilians  rose  in  support  of  their  king,  and  under  skillful 
French  generals  forced  them  to  retreat  with  a  loss  of 
thousands  killed  and  wounded  and  as  many  more 
prisoners. 

But  in  the  meantime  Louis  XIV.  had  suffered  stag- 
gering reverses  in  Germany  and  the  Netherlands. 

Blenheim. 

A  little  town  in  the  southern  part  of  Germany,  with 
less  than  a  thousand  population,  has  given  its  name  to 
one  of  the  great  decisive  battles  of  the  world.  It  was 
here  that  in  1704  the  allied  forces,  under  Prince  Eugene 
of  Savoy  and  Marlborough  of  England,  won  a  brilliant 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  121 

victory  over  the  veteran  troops  of  Louis  XIV.  under 
Marshal  Tallard  and  the  Bavarians  under  the  elector  of 
Bavaria. 

"In  one  respect  the  struggle  stands  almost  unrivaled, 
for  the  whole  of  the  Teutonic  race  was  represented  in  the 
strange  medley  of  Englishmen,  Dutchmen,  Hanoverians, 
Danes,  Wurtemburgers  and  Austrians  who  followed 
Marlborough  and  Eugene.  The  French  and  Bavarians, 
who  numbered,  like  their  opponents,  something  like 
50,000,  lay  behind  a  little  stream  which  ran  through 
swampy  ground  to  the  Danube.  Their  position  was  a 
strong  one,  for  its  front  was  covered  by  the  swamp,  its 
right  by  the  Danube,  its  left  by  a  hill  country  in  which 
the  Danube  rose,  and  Tallard  had  not  only  strongly 
intrenched  himself  but  was  far  superior  to  his  rivals  in 
artillery. 

>l  Though  the  allies  were  in  motion  at  sunrise  on  the 
1 3th  of  August,  it  was  not  until  mid-day  that  Eugene, 
who  commanded  on  the  right,  succeeded  in  crossing  the 
stream.  The  English  at  once  forded  it  on  the  left  and 
attacked  Blenheim,  in  which  the  bulk  of  the  French 
infantry  were  intrenched ;  but  after  a  fierce  struggle  the 
attack  was  repulsed,  while  as  gallant  a  resistance  at  the 
other  end  held  Eugene  in  check.  Marlborough  now 
chose  the  center,  where  the  French  believed  themselves 
unassailable,  and  by  making  an  artificial  road  across  the 
morass  which  covered  it,  threw  his  8,000  horsemen  on 
the  mass  of  the  French  cavalry,  and  two  desperate 
charges,  which  the  duke  headed  in  person,  decided  the 
day."* 

Of  the  defeated  army,  12,000  were  slain  and  14,000 
were  captured.  The  prestige  which  one  hundred  victo- 
ries had  given  the  French  soldiery  was  lost  and  passed  to 
the  allies,  and  "  Marlborough  "  became  a  name  of  fear  to 
every  child  in  France. 

*  Green's  "  History  of  the  English  People." 


122  THE    PASSING   OF    SPAIN    AND 

The  Treaty  of  Utrecht.    17 1 3. 

The  contestants  were  exhausted,  and  were  all  willing 
tq  agree  to  a  peace.  By  the  death  of  Emperor  Joseph  in 
1711  the  Archduke  Charles  succeeded  to  the  Imperial 
crown,  and  if  he  could  have  added  to  this  the  Spanish 
possessions  it  would  have  rendered  him  as  dangerous  to 
the  peace  of  Europe  as  was  Louis  XIV.  Political 
jealousies  had  arisen.  Marlborough,  charged  with  con- 
verting to  his  own  use  money  intended  to  supply  his 
army,  was  pronounced  guilty  by  the  House  of  Commons 
and  the  allies  deprived  of  their  ablest  leader. 

It  was  agreed  by  Treaty  of  Utrecht  that  Philip  should 
have  Spain  and  the  Indies,  while  Naples,  Sardinia,  Milan 
and  the  Spanish  Netherlands  should  go  to  the  emperor. 
Sicily  was  given  to  the  Duke  of  Savoy,  and  styled  a 
kingdom.  England  secured  Gibraltar,  Minorca,  New- 
foundland, Hudson  Bay  and  Nova  Scotia.  France  was 
forced  to  recognize  the  right  of  Anne  to  the  English 
crown  and  to  expel  the  Pretender  and  his  son,  Charles 
Edward,  while  Philip  renounced  all  right  to  succession 
to  the  throne  of  France. 

On  the  death  of  Louis  XIV.,  in  1715,  Philip,  unmind- 
ful of  his  solemn  pledges  in  the  Treaty  of  Utrecht, 
aspired  to  the  French  crown,  and  made  war  against 
France;  but  other  nations  interfered  and  compelled  him 
to  respect  the  agreement  of  the  Quadruple  Alliance. 

Spain  in  1733  played  a  minor  part  in  the  war  of  the 
succession  to  the  Polish  throne,  and  a  little  later  quarreled 
with  England  over  the  latter's  right  to  trade  with  Spanish 
colonies  in  America  granted  by  the  Treaty  of  Utrecht, 
but  these  affairs  were  not  serious. 

'Jenkins'  Ear." 

In  1739  war  broke  out  with  Spain  over  "Jenkins* 
ear."  As  the  story  goes,  Captain  Jenkins,  of  the  ship 
Rebecca,  of  London,  sailed  from  Jamaica  and  was  hang- 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  123 

ing  about  the  ports  of  Florida,  with  which  the  English 
were  not  allowed  to  trade.  He  claimed  to  have  been 
boarded  by  the  Spanish  coast  guard,  who  tried  to  find 
proof  that  he  was  smuggling.  Angered  by  their  failure, 
they  put  a  noose  about  his  neck  and  hung  him  until  he 
was  choked  into  insensibility,  lowering  him  just  in  time 
to  save  his  life,  and  further  abusing  him  by  cutting  off 
one  of  his  ears  and  telling  him  to  take  it  to  his  king. 

The  House  of  Commons  took  up  the  case,  and  Jenkins, 
when  asked  how  he  felt  while  thus  abused,  said,  "  I  recom- 
mended my  soul  to  God  and  my  cause  to  my  country." 
The  answer  was  made  a  political  war  cry,  and  touched  a 
chord  of  popular  sympathy.  However,  it  is  by  no  means 
certain  that  Jenkins  lost  his  ear  in  Florida. 

In  1740,  when  the  war  of  the  Austrian  succession 
broke  out,  Spain  was  one  of  the  nations  who  repudiated 
its  solemn  treaty  recognizing  the  rights  of  Maria  Theresa. 
England  alone  of  all  the  signatories  to  that  compact  was 
faithful.  The  Spanish  forces  gained  some  successes,  and 
for  a  time  it  looked  as  though  they  might  recover  their 
possessions  in  Italy,  but  Europe  was  tired  of  fighting, 
and  one  by  one  the  enemies  of  the  heroic  Austrian 
empress  made  peace  with  her  and  withdrew  from  the 
struggle,  Philip  V.  dying  in  1746  of  apoplexy  before  it 
wis  over. 

In  spite  of  the  disturbed  character  of  his  reign  his 
country  showed  marked  improvement.  He  was  earnestly 
desirous  of  seeing  it  prosperous  and  happy,  and  had 
called  to  his  cabinet  able  men  and  those  who  had  its 
welfare  at  heart. 

Synopsis  of  Events  Contemporary  with  this  Reign. 

1701.  James  II.  of  England  dies  in  exile.  Yale  Col- 
lege founded.  Philip  of  Anjou  becomes  Philip 
V.  of  Spain  and  first  of  the  Bourbon  kings.  Act 
of  Settlement,  passed  by  English  Parliament, 


124  THE  PASSING  OF  SPAIN  AND 

secures  the  right  of  succession  to  the  heirs,  being 
Protestant,  of  Sophia,  daughter  of  Elizabeth, 
daughter  of  James  I. 

1702.  William  III.,  king  of  England  and  stadtholder 
of  Holland,  dies.  Anne,  daughter  of  James  II., 
accedes  to  English  throne.  The  War  of  the 
Spanish  Succession  begins.  First  daily  news- 
paper, "  The  Courant,"  published  in  England. 

1704.  Battle  of  Blenheim.  Capture  of  Gibraltar.  First 
newspaper  in  United  States,  published  in  Boston. 
Charles  XII.  of  Sweden  completes  conquest  of 
Poland. 

1706.  Marlborough  defeats  the  French  under  Villeroy 
at  Ramilles. 

1707.  The    kingdoms   of    England    and    Scotland    are 
united  under  the  name  of  Great  Britain.    Charles 
XII.  of  Sweden  conquers  Saxony. 

1709.  Charles  XII.  defeated  at  Pultowa  by  the  Russians, 
and  escapes  into  Turkey.  Dr.  Samuel  Johnson 
born.  (d.  1784.) 

1712.  Marlborough  dismissed  from  command  for  embez- 
zlement of  funds.      Frederick  the    Great   born, 
(d.  1789.)     Rosseau  born.     (d.  1778.) 

1713.  Peace  of  Utrecht  ends  the  War  of  the  Spanish 
Succession. 

1714.  Queen  Anne,  last  of  the  house  of  Stuart,  dies,  and 
is  succeeded  by  George  I.  of  the  house  of  Bruns- 
wick (or  Hanover). 

1715.  Jacobite  rebellion  in  England.     Louis  XIV.  dies. 
"Gil  Bias  "  and  Pope's  "  Iliad  "  published. 

1718.  St.  Petersburg  made  capital  of  Russia.  Charles 
XII.  killed  at  siege  of  Fredrikshall.  Pragmatic 
Sanction  of  Emperor  Charles  VI.  names  his 
daughter  Maria  Theresa  as  heir  to  his  Austrian 
possessions. 

1721.    Rise  of  Walpole  to  power  in  the  British  Govern- 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  125 

ment.     Inoculation   against  small-pox  introduced 
into  England  by  Lady  Montague. 

1725.  Death    of    Peter   the    Great.     Accession    of   his 
empress,  Catharine  I.      Birth  of  Clive.     (d.  1774.) 
Spain,    by   treaty,   guarantees    rights    of    Maria 
Theresa. 

1726.  Russia,  by  treaty,  guarantees  rights  of  Maria  The- 
resa.    Swift's  "  Gulliver's  Travels  "  published. 

1727.  Death  of  George   I.  of  England.     Accession  of 
George   II.      Hostilities  between   England    and 
Spain  without  declaration  of  war. 

1728.  Prussia,  by  treaty,  guarantees  the  rights  of  Maria 
Theresa.     Goldsmith  born.     (d.  1774.) 

1730.  Baltimore  founded.     Liverpool  and   Manchester 
Railroad    in    England    opened.     Edward    Burke 
born.     (d.  1797.) 

1731.  England  and  Holland,  by  treaty,  guarantee  the 
rights  of  Maria  Theresa. 

1732.  George  II.  grants  Georgia  to  General  Oglethorpe. 
Franklin  founds  first  subscription  library  in  the 
United  States  at  Philadelphia.     Pope's  "Essay 
on  Man  "  published.    Washington  born.    (d.  1 799.) 
Haydn  born,     (d.  1809.) 

1733.  Bourbon    family   compact    between    France    and 
Spain.     War  of  Polish  succession  between  France 
and  Austria.     Joseph  Priestley,  discoverer  of  oxy- 
gen, born.     Savannah,  Ga.,  founded. 

1738.  France,    by    treaty,    guarantees    the    Pragmatic 
Sanction. 

1739.  England  goes  to  war  with  Spain  about  Jenkins' 
ear. 

1740.  Frederick   the   Great  becomes   king  of   Prussia. 
Charles  VI.,  emperor  of  Germany,  dies.  Treachery 
of  all  the  powers  but  Great  Britain,  who  by  solemn 
treaty  had   agreed  to  respect  the   rights  of   the 


126  THE    PASSING    OF    SPAIN    AND 

Austrian  succession.     Frederick  of    Prussia   be- 
gins the  war. 

1741.  Prussia,  France  and  Bavaria  allied  against  Aus- 
tria.    Frederick  makes  a  secret  treaty  with  Maria 
Theresa  and  deserts  his  allies. 

1742.  Frederick  treacherously  repudiates  his  treaty  with 
Maria  Theresa  and  renews  the  war. 

1743.  England  supports  the  cause  of  Maria  Theresa  and 
declares  war.     Thomas  Jefferson  born.    (d.  1826.) 
Toussaint    L'Ouverture,   the    negro  liberator  of 
Hayti  and  the  greatest  captain  that  race  has  pro- 
duced, born.     (d.  1803.) 

1745.  Last  Jacobite  revolt  in  England.     New  England 
troops  capture   Lewisburg.     The  French  defeat 
the    British   and    Dutch  at   Fontenoy,  where  the 
Irish  refugees  make  their  famous  charge  and  win 
a   victory   for    France.     Death   of    the  emperor 
Charles  VI 1 1.  and  election  of  Francis  I.,  husband 
of  Maria  Theresa,  to  the  throne.     Peace  between 
Austria  and  Prussia. 

Ferdinand  VI.     1746-1759. 

Second  son  of  Philip  V.  and  Maria  Louisa  of  Savoy, 
born  September  23,  1713.  His  elder  brother,  Louis, 
died  in  1725  and  he  was  then  proclaimed  Prince  of 
Asturias,  which  title  corresponds  to  that  of  Prince  of  Wales. 
He  succeeded  to  the  throne  on  the  death  of  his  father  in 

1 746. 

His  health  was  poor,  his  character  not  strong,  and  he 
left  the  government  of  his  kingdom  in  the  hands  of  his 
ministers  and  his  wife. 

During  his  reign  he  kept  out  of  foreign  complications 
as  much  as  possible,  and  the  affairs  of  his  kingdom 
improved  somewhat. 

As  he  grew  weaker  he  became  melancholy  and 
despondent,  and  died  insane.  He  had  no  children,  and, 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA. 

according  to  the  terms  of  the  Treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle, 
was  succeeded  by  his  half  brother,  Charles  III. 

Aix-la-Chapelle. 

The  Treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  (1748)  ended  the  wars 
of  the  Austrian  succession.  By  the  terms  of  this  treaty 
made  between  all  the  belligerents  in  that  war,  the 
prisoners  were  released  without  ransom,  the  conquests 
made  during  the  war  returned,  France  recognized  the 
Brunswick  succession  to  the  English  throne  and  expelled 
the  Pretender  from  the  French  court;  England  was  to 
have  the  right  to  trade  with  the  Spanish  colonies  for  four 
years ;  the  election  of  the  Austrian  emperor  was  acknowl- 
edged and  Austria  compelled  to  give  up  Silesia  and  Glatz 
to  Frederick. 

The  general  verdict  of  history  upholds  the  justice  of 
the  cause  of  the  heroic  Maria  Theresa  and  condemns  the 
treachery  and  injustice  of  the  ambitious  and  unscrupulous 
rulers  who  sought  to  make  her  difficulty  their  oppor- 
tunity. Of  all  the  nations  who  by  solemn  treaty  had 
agreed  to  the  Pragmatic  Sanction,  England  alone  kept 
faith. 

Synopsis  of  Events  Contemporary  with  This  Period. 

1747.  French    invade    Holland.     Franklin  proves  that 
lightning  is  electricity. 

1748.  Treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle. 

1749.  Halifax,   Nova  Scotia,  founded.     Publication  of 
"Tom  Jones"  and  John  Wesley's  "Account  of 
Methodists."     Birth  of  Charles  Fox,  English  par- 
liamentarian,    (d.    1806.)      Laplace,   one   of   the 
greatest    astronomers  and  mathematicians  born, 
(d.  1827.)     Birth  of  Jenner,  who  discovered   the 
principles    of  vaccination,    (d.    1823.)     Mirabeau 
born.     (d.  1791.)     Goethe  born.     (d.  1832.) 

1751.    Clive    begins    his   celebrated   military  career   in 


128  THE    PASSING   OF    SPAIN    AND 

India.  Change  of  calendar  in  England  from 
old  style  to  new.  Publication  of  Gray's  "  Elegy 
in  a  Country  Churchyard." 

1754.  The  French  built  Fort  Duquesne;  Washington's 
expedition   against   it.      Founding   of    Columbia 
College  (King's  College)  in  New  York. 

1755.  French    and    Indian    war.       Braddock's    defeat. 
Lisbon     earthquake.     Hahnemann,    founder    of 
homeopathy,  born.     (d.   1843.)      John    Marshall, 
first  Chief  Justice  of  America,  born.     (d.  1835.) 

1756.  Death  of  English  prisoners  in  the  Black  Hole  of 
Calcutta. 

1757.  Byng  (English  admiral)  fails  to  relieve  Minorca, 
besieged  by  Spain.     Frederick  defeats  Austria  at 
Prague;  is  defeated  at  Colin.     Clive  wins  impor- 
tant  victories   in    India   for    England.      Canova 
born.      (d.    1822.)      Lafayette    born.      (d.    1834.) 
Alexander  Hamilton  born.     (Killed  in  duel  by 
Burr,  1804.) 

1 758.  Americans  capture  Levvisburg  and  Fort  Duquesne. 
Nelson  born.     (d.  1805.     Trafalgar.)    Robespierre 
born.     (d.  1794.) 

1759.  General  Wolfe  captures    Quebec   from    French. 
British  capture  Niagara,  Ticonderoga  and  Crown 
Point.     Opening  of  the  British  Museum. 

Charles  III.     1759-1788, 

Born  1716;  died  1788;  succeeded  to  the  Spanish 
throne  1 759  on  the  death  of  his  half  brother,  Ferdinand  VI. 

He  was  a  younger  son  of  Philip  V.,  and  some  posses- 
sions in  Italy  falling  to  him  when  he  was  fifteen  years 
old,  he  was  sent  with  an  army  to  occupy  them.  Charles 
possessed  more  than  average  ability,  and  had  the  good 
sense  to  surround  himself  with  faithful  and  competent 
advisers.  When  eighteen  he  conquered  the  two  Sicilies, 
and  the  emperor  of  German)  recognized  him  as  their 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  1 2Q 

king.  When  called  to  the  Spanish  throne  he  instituted 
some  needed  reforms,  and  under  his  care  the  domestic 
affairs  of  Spain  were  greatly  improved. 

Family  Compact. 

In  1761  he  made  what  was  known  as  the  "Family 
Compact,"  with  all  the  leaders  of  the  House  of  Bourbon, 
the  chief  of  whom  was  the  king  of  France,  by  which  the 
enemy  of  either  was  to  be  considered  the  enemy  of  both, 
and  neither  was  to  make  a  treaty  of  peace  without  the 
consent  of  the  other.  Though  the  treaty  was  secret, 
Pitt,  the  English  statesman,  suspected  it  and  was  anxious 
to  declare  war  against  Spain  at  once.  The  English  min- 
istry finally  agreed  to  it  and  hostilities  began  in  1762. 

As  a  result,  Manila  and  Cuba  were  captured  by  the 
English,  and  when  the  Peace  of  Paris  was  made  in  1763 
Spain  gave  up  Florida  to  England  in  exchange  for  them. 

Charles  and  his  ministers  were  engaged  in  a  struggle 
with  the  church,  which  had  numerous  holdings  of  prop- 
erty throughout  Spain,  and  some  excellent  reforms  were 
made. 

It  was  during  his  reign  that  the  Jesuits  were  expelled 
from  Spain,  and  sufficient  pressure  was  brought  to  bear 
upon  Pope  Clement  XIV.  in  1773  to  compel  him  to  sup- 
press the  Order. 

American  Revolution. 

This  monarch  is  of  interest  to  Americans,  as  he  recog- 
nized their  independence  in  the  Revolutionary  struggle 
and  loaned  them  $174,017.13  in  1781,  the  third  foreign 
loan  that  the  colonies  were  able  to  obtain,  France  having; 

^5 

furnished  the  other  two. 

The  time  seemed  a  good  one  to  even  old  scores  with 
England,  and  hostilities  were  commenced  in  1779.  A 
plan  for  the  invasion  of  England  by  the  allied  forces  was 
formed,  and  a  powerful  naval  force  rode  unchallenged  in 

9 


130  THE    PASSING   OF    SPAIN    AND 

the  Channel.  As  usual,  dissension  arose  among  the 
leaders,  and  the  opportunity  was  lost. 

A  long  siege  by  the  allied  Spanish  and  French  forces 
was  conducted  against  Gibraltar,  but  without  success. 
(See  Gibraltar,  Philip  V.)  In  1783,  after  much  difficulty, 
the  treaty  of  peace  was  signed  at  Versailles,  by  which  the 
independence  of  the  United  States  was  recognized  and 
East  Florida,  Honduras  and  Milan  restored  to  Spain. 

Charles  died  in  1788.  Though  not  of  commanding 
genius,  he  compares  very  favorably  with  Spanish  mon- 
archs,  and  under  his  administration  the  country  materially 
improved. 

Synopsis  of  Events  Contemporary  with  this  Period. 

1760.  Death  of  George  II.  Accession  of  his  grandson, 
George  III. 

1762.  England  declares  war  against  Spain  and  captures 
Havana,    Cuba.    Paris    suppresses    the    Jesuits. 
Empress   Elizabeth   of    Russia  dies.      Paul   III. 
accedes.     Is  murdered.     Accession  of  Catherine 
II.  to  the  throne. 

1 763.  End  of  the  Seven  Years'  War.     Treaty  of  Paris. 
Great  Britain  secures  all  the  Canadian  dominion 
from  France. 

1764.  Lous    XV.    prohibits     Jesuit     organizations    in 
France.      Survey  of  Mason    and    Dixon's    line, 
the  boundary  between  Pennsylvania  and  Mary- 
land, now  begun. 

1765.  George  III.  of    England   has   his  first  attack   of 
insanity.     Passage  of  "Stamp  Act  "for  taxation 
of  the  American  colonies.     Blackstone's  "  Com- 
mentaries "  published. 

1767.  Andrew  Jackson  born.  (d.  1845.)  J.Q.Adams 
born.  (d.  1848.)  Jesuits  suppressed  in  Spain. 

1769.  Spain,  France  and  Naples  demand  suppression  of 
the  order  of  the  Jesuits  of  the  Pope.  Watt 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA. 

patents  his  steam-engine.  Arkwright  patents  his 
"  water-frame."  Publication  of  "  Letters  of  Junius." 
Wellington  born.  (d.  1832.)  Bonaparte  born, 
(d.  1821.)  Culver  born.  (d.  1832.) 

1770.  Hargrave  patents  his  "  spinning  jenny."  Publica- 
tion of  "  Encyclopaedia  Britannica "  and  Gold- 
smith's "  Deserted  Village." 

1772.  Prussia,    Austria    and    Russia    agree    to    divide 
Poland    among     themselves.      Lord     Mansfield, 
English   justice,  decides   that  a  slave  cannot  be 
held  in  England. 

1773.  Pope  Clement  XIV.  abolishes  the  Order  of  the 
Jesuits.     Warren   Hastings   appointed  governor- 
general  of  India.      "  Boston   Tea  Party."      Birth 
of  Metternich.     (d.  1859.) 

1774.  Death  of  Louis  XV.     Succeeded  by  his  grand- 
son, Louis   XVI.     American  colonies  call  their 
first   Continental   Congress.      Priestley  discovers 
oxygen. 

1775.  American  Revolution  begins.    Battles  of  Lexing- 
.  ton,  Concord  and  Bunker  Hill. 

1776.  The  British  army  evacuates  Boston.     Americans 
defeated  at  Long  Island.     Declaration  of   Inde- 
pendence.     Washington   victorious   at    Trenton. 
Publication  of    Paine's  "  Common   Sense ;"  Gib- 
bon's "  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire ;" 
Adam  Smith's  "  Wealth  of  Nations." 

1777.  Washington  victorious  at   Princeton.      Defeated 
at  Brandywine  and  Germantown.     Burgoyne  sur- 
renders at  Saratoga.     American  army  winters  at 
Valley  Forge. 

1778.  War    between     Austria    and    Prussia.      France 
makes   a   treaty  with  the  colonies.      Indian  and 
English      irregulars     massacre      inhabitants     of 
Wyoming  and  Cherry  Valley. 

1779.  \Vayne    captures     Stony    Point.       General    Sul- 


132  THE    PASSING   OF    SPAIN   AND 

livan's  successful  expedition  against  the  Indians 
near   Elmira.       Paul    Jones,  commanding  "  Bon 
Homme    Richard,"  captures    the  British   frigate 
-  "  Serapis." 

1780.  Maria    Theresa  of    Austria    dies.      Treason   of 
Benedict   Arnold.      The    natives  of  Peru   rebel 
against  Spain.     Pennsylvania  begins  the  emanci- 
pation of  her  slaves. 

1781.  Joseph  II.  of  Austria  abolishes  serfdom.     Spain 
recaptures  West    Florida  (Texas),  from   British. 
Cornwallis  surrenders  at  Yorktown.      Abolition 
of  slavery  in   Massachusetts.      The   Dutch  win 
naval    battle    over    English    at     Dogger    Banks. 
George  Stephenson,  inventor  of  the  locomotive, 
born.     (d.  1848.) 

1782.  Rodney  (English)  wins  in  the  West  Indies  the 
greatest   naval    victory  of   the  century  over  De 
Grasee    (French).      Fall    of    Lord    North    from 
power  in  the  English  cabinet.     Negotiations  for 
peace  opened    between    the    United  States  and 
Britain.     Froebel  born.    (d.  1852.)    Calhoun'born. 
(d.  1850.)     Daniel  Webster  born.     (d.  1852.) 

1783.  Peace  of  Paris  recognizes    American  independ- 
ence.    Catherine  of   Russia  seizes  the  Crimean 
Peninsula,  belonging  to  Turkey.     Bolivar  born. 
(d.   1830)     Washington   Irving    born.     (d.  1859.) 

1784.  First  daily  newspaper  in  America  published  in 
Philadelphia. 

1 786.  Galvani's  discoveries  in  electricity  made  public. 

1787.  Warren  Hastings  impeached  by  House  of  Com- 
mons.       Shay's     rebellion      in      Massachusetts. 
Convention  called  to  frame  the  "  Constitution  of 
the  United  States." 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  133 

Charles  IV.    1788-1808. 

Son  of  Charles  III.,  born  1748;  died  1819. 

The  first  four  years  of  his  reign  under  the  ministry  of 
Florida  Blanca  passed  prosperously  for  Spain.  Then 
intrigues  for  the  elevation  of  the  queen's  favorite,  Godoy, 
deposed  Blanca  and  finally  placed  the  favorite  at  the 
head  of  affairs. 

France  was  in  the  throes  of  revolution,  and  the  Spanish 
king  was  naturally  inclined  to  assist  his  Bourbon  cousin, 
Louis  XVI.  France  declared  war  in  1793  and  the 
Spanish  forces  invaded  the  territory  adjacent  to  the  Pyre- 
nees, captured  Toulon  and  met  with  some  success.  They 
were  checked  by  the  Republicans,  however,  and  Toulon 
was  afterward  recovered  by  General  Bonaparte.  The 
invaders  were  followed  across  the  Pyrenees,  and  the 
greater  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Navarre  overrun  by 
the  French.  Although  defeated  at  sea,  the  French  were 
brilliantly  successful  in  their  land  operations  and  Spain 
was  soon  reduced  to  abject  submission.  Peace  was  con- 
cluded with  the  Republicans  in  1795,  and  the  French 
evacuated  Spanish  territory  in  consideration  of  Spain's 
ceding  to  them  part  of  the  Island  of  San  Domingo. 

Soon  after  this  (1796),  an  alliance  offensive  and  defen- 
sive was  formed  between  Spain  and  France  and  war 
declared  against  England.  It  was  wholly  a  naval  war. 
and  Spain  met  with  continued  defeat.  Her  fleet  under 
Cordova  was  beaten  off  Cape  St.  Vincent  by  Sir  John 
Jervis;  Cadiz  was  blockaded,  her  foreign  commerce 
almost  destroyed  and  the  English  made  themselves 
masters  of  Trinidad,  which  they  have  since  retained. 

In  1797  Spain  lost  Minorca  to  the  English.  The 
Peace  of  Amiens,  1 80 1,  restored  Minorca  to  Spain  and 
Louisiana  to  France. 

Louisiana. 

It  may  be  of  interest  to  notice  briefly  the  many  changes 


THE    PASSING    OF    SPAIN    AND 

of  ownership  of  that  part  of  the  United  States  formerly 
comprised  under  the  names  of  Louisiana  and  Florida. 

The  French  based  their  claim  to  this  region  upon  the 
explorations  of  La  Salle,  who,  in  1681-82,  explored  the 
whole  length  of  the  Mississippi  river. 

A  colonizing  expedition  left  France  September  24, 
1698,  and  the  2d  of  March,  1699,  reached  the  mouth  of 
the  Mississippi  river.  Curiously  enough,  they  were  able 
to  identify  the  place,  by  finding  in  the  hands  of  the 
Indians  a  letter  which  the  Chevalier  de  Tonti  had  written 
La  Salle  thirteen  years  before.  On  the  Bay  of  Biloxi  the 
first  colony  was  formed,  and  a  fort  erected  to  protect  it. 
That  fall  an  English  vessel  attempted  to  explore  the 
region,  but  finding  the  French  colonists,  acknowledged 
their  claims  and  retired. 

In  1718  Bienville  founded  New  Orleans.  The  site 
chosen  was  little  better  than  a  cypress  swamp,  but  time 
has  justified  the  wisdom  of  the  pioneer's  selection.  Girls 
for  wives  of  the  settlers  were  sent  from  the  houses  of 
correction,  and  later,  in  1728,  a  better  class,  each  of  whom 
was  given  by  the  company  a  casket  containing  articles 
of  dress,  etc.  These  were  known  as  the  "casket  girls," 
and  the  later  society  of  the  province  were  proud  to  claim 
descent  from  them. 

In  1755  Louisiana  received  many  settlers  from  Nova 
Scotia,  when  the  French  were  driven  from  that  province 
by  the  English. 

By  the  Treaty  of  Paris,  1763,  France  ceded  her  pos- 
sessions east  of  the  Mississippi  river  to  England,  except- 
ing New  Orleans.  At  this  time,  Spain  gave  up  the 
southeastern  portion  of  the  United  States,  known  as 
Florida,  to  England,  in  exchange  for  Cuba  and  Manila, 
which  had  been  captured  by  the  English.  Spain  wns  an 
ally  of  France,  and  to  reimburse  her,  France  ceded  to 
Spain  New  Orleans  and  her  possessions  west  of  the 
Mississippi  river.  Spanish  rule  in  Louisiana  was  not 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  135 

popular,  and  the  inhabitants  expelled  the  governor  and 
sent  messengers  to  the  king  of  France,  declaring  that  they 
would  be  a  colony  of  France  or  a  free  commonwealth. 
Their  appeal  fell  on  deaf  ears.  In  1769  a  Spanish  fleet 
suddenly  appeared  in  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi; 
2,600  Spanish  troops  with  50  pieces  of  artillery  were 
landed  under  Don  Alexandra  O'Reilly  (cruel  O'Reilly); 
the  leaders  of  the  revolt  were  arrested  and  sentenced  to 
be  hung.  One  of  them  was  killed  in  confinement,  and 
the  only  mercy  shown  them  was,  that  they  were  allowed 
to  be  shot  by  a  file  of  soldiers  rather  than  hung. 

After  the  war  of  the  American  Revolution  and  as 
quickly  as  settlements  came  to  be  made  in  Kentucky  and 
Tennessee,  the  commercial  value  of  the  mouth  of  the 
Mississippi  river  rapidly  became  apparent.  Spain 
claimed  the  right  to  close  it  absolutely  to  commerce  from 
the  United  States,  or  to  exact  taxes  which  were  practi- 
cally prohibitory.  The  United  States  claimed  that  own- 
ing one  side  of  the  river,  by  international  law,  they  were 
entitled  to  free  navigation  the  entire  length,  with  the 
right  to  land  goods  at  its  mouth,  and  that  further,  by 
special  treaty  when  France  conveyed  the  land  east  of  the 
Mississippi  to  England  in  1 763,  it  was  specifically  agreed 
that  England  should  have  free  navigation  rights  to  the 
Gulf.  Spain  refused  to  concede  the  justice  of  the  Amer- 
ican claims,  levied  duties  sometimes  as  high  as  75  per 
cent,  of  the  value  of  the  goods,  which  the  sturdy  back- 
woodsmen were  little  inclined  to  pay.  There  were 
numerous  threats  among  them  to  organize  an  expedition 
to  forcibly  adjust  matters  and  the  question  seemed  pro- 
lific of  international  complications  for  the  struggling 
colonies. 

By  a  treaty  made  at  Madrid  in  1795,  Spain  had  agreed 
that  for  three  years  the  United  States  should  have  the 
right  to  free  navigation  to  the  mouth  of  the  river  and 
the  privilege  to  land  goods  at  New  Orleans,  and  by  infer- 


136  THE    PASSING   OF    SPAIN    AND 

ence  nad  agreed  that  at  the  end  of  the  three  years  the 
privilege  should  be  renewed  or  a  new  port  named  for  the 
landing  of  the  goods.  At  the  expiration  of  the  time 
named  in  the  treaty  she  refused  to  continue  the  privi- 
leges, and  relations  at  once  became  strained.  Three 
thousand  regular  troops  were  mobilized  in  Ohio,  the 
settlers  volunteered  and  war  seemed  imminent.  In  the 
face  of  this  preparation  Spain  gave  way,  good  feeling 
revived,  trade  was  resumed  and  immigration  increased. 
But  Spain  had  learned  a  lesson.  As  the  American  col- 
onies on  the  Mississippi  became  more  powerful  they 
were  sure  to  become  more  insistent  and  Louisiana  would 
be  lost  to  the  king. 

Spain  Cedes  Louisiana  to  France. 

On  the  2ist  of  March,  i8oi,a  secret  treaty  was  ratified 
at  Madrid,  whereby  Louisiana  was  transferred  to  Napoleon. 
He  meant  to  occupy  it  with  a  strong  army  and  a  fleet  to 
guard  the  coast,  but  in  the  face  of  his  English  foe  he 
was  unable  to  do  this  and  he  gladly  listened  to  proposals 
for  its  sale  from  the  United  States,  although  he  had 
agreed  in  treaty  with  Spain  not  to  sell  this  territory  to 
any  other  power.  The  treaty  of  sale  was  concluded  and 
Louisiana  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  United  States 
upon  the  payment  of  60,000,000  francs,  about  $  1 2,000,000, 
the  United  States  agreeing  to  pay  some  claims  her  own 
settlers  had  against  the  French  government. 

The  territory  purchased  included  2,300  square  miles 
of  what  is  now  Alabama,  3,600  square  miles  of  Mississippi, 
all  of  Louisiana,  Arkansas,  Missouri,  Iowa,  Nebraska, 
part  of  Texas,  which  was  re-ceded  to  Spain,  and  the 
Dakotas,  Minnesota  west  of  the  Mississippi,  all  but  the 
southwestern  corner  of  Kansas,  the  whole  of  the  Indian 
Territory,  and  such  part  of  Colorado,  Wyoming  and 
Montana  as  lies  on  the  eastern  slope  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains. 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  137 

The  southwestern  boundary  was  not  well  defined  and 
neither  President  Jefferson  nor  the  French  claimed  that 
Louisiana  bordered  on  the  Pacific  ocean. 

In  1804  Spain  again  declared  war  against  England, 
who  had  already  seized  her  treasure  fleet  and  held  it  as  a 
pledge  of  Spanish  faith.  Every  exertion  was  made  to 
strengthen  her  navy  to  enable  it  to  cope  with  England, 
but  Nelson's  crushing  victory  at  Trafalgar  settled  that 
dream  for  all  time. 

Trafalgar. 

Napoleon  mobilized  an  army  of  100,000  men  at  Bologne 
on  the  English  channel  and  prepared  to  invade  England 
"  Though  300,000  volunteers  mustered  in  England  to 
meet  the  coming  attack,  such  a  force  would  have  offered 
but  a  small  hindrance  to  the  veterans  of  the  Grand  Army 
had  they  once  crossed  the  channel." 

Everything  depended  upon  his  being  able  to  keep  the 
superior  English  fleet  at  a  distance.  He  said,  "  Let  us 
be  masters  of  the  channel  for  six  hours  and  we  are  masters 
of  the  world." 

His  alliance  with  Spain  had  placed  the  Spanish  fleet 
at  his  command,  which,  although  much  shattered  from  its 
fight  off  Cape  Vincent  earlier  in  the  year,  was  still  power- 
ful, and  joined  to  the  French  fleet  made  no  mean  antago- 
nist. It  was  his  plan  to  draw  off  the  British  fleet  by  a 
pretended  attack  elsewhere,  then  hasten  back  and  be  able 
to  show  in  the  channel  for  a  short  time  a  superior  naval 
force.  "  Admiral  Villeneuve,  uniting  the  Spanish  ships 
with  his  own  squadron  from  Toulon,  drew  Nelson  in 
pursuit  to  the  West  Indies,  and  then  suddenly  returning 
to  Cadiz,  hastened  to  form  a  junction  with  the  French 
squadron  at  Brest  and  to  crush  the  English  fleet  in  the 
channel.  But  a  headlong  pursuit  brought  Nelson  up 
with  him  ere  the  manceuver  was  complete,  and  the  two 
fleets  met  on  the  2ist  of  October,  1805,  off  Cape  Trafal- 


138  THE    PASSING    OF    SPAIN    AND 

gar.  '  England,'  ran  Nelson's  famous  signal,  '  expects 
every  man  to  do  his  duty;'  and,  though  he  fell  himself 
in  the  hour  of  victory,  twenty  French  sail  had  struck  their 
flag  ere  the  day  was  done.  The  French  and  Spanish 
navies  were,  in  fact,  annihilated. 

"  From  this  hour  the  supremacy  of  England  at  sea 
remained  unquestioned  and  the  danger  of  any  invasion  of 
England  rolled  away  like  a  dream.' 

Spain  was  getting  tired  of  her  alliance  with  Napoleon, 
and  his  summary  execution  of  the  Bourbon  Prince,  Duke 
D'Enghien,  displeased  them  and  made  them  dread  their 
powerful  ally.  A  secret  treaty  was  made  with  Portugal 
and  England,  in  which  they  agreed  to  begin  operations 
against  France  as  soon  as  Russia  should  move,  but  the 
victory  of  Jena  rendered  Napoleon  still  more  terrible,  and 
they  were  soon  in  abject  humiliation  at  his  feet. 

Godoy  was  becoming  unpopular  and  the  discontented 
rallied  around  Prince  Ferdinand,  heir-apparent  to  the 
throne.  Factional  strife  was  secretly  fanned  by  French 
influence  and  soon  the  prince  was  accused  of  a  plot  to 
assassinate  his  father.  He  was  tried  by  the  Cortes  and 
acquitted,  and  Godoy  became  more  unpopular  still  and 
was  overthrown. 

Charles  IV.,  worn  out  by  the  burdens  of  his  throne, 
the  disappointment  of  his  favorite  and  the  French  plots, 
abdicated  1808  in  favor  of  his  son,  Ferdinand  VII. 

Synopsis  of  Events  Contemporary  with  this  Period. 

1789.  Beginning  of  the  French  Revolution.     Capture  of 
the   Bastile.     Expulsion   of  the   nobles.     United 
States  Government  organizes  under  the  Constitu- 
tion.     Washington    first    President.      Tammany 
Society  in  New  York  founded. 

1 790.  French  assignats  (bonds),  based  on  lands  of  church 

*Green's  "  History  of  the  English   People." 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  139 

and  nobles  which  the  Revolutionists  confiscated, 
are  issued  as  currency. 

1791.  French  king  attempts  to  fly  and  is  arrested.    Rise 
of   the    Girondists.     Adoption    of   the    first    ten 
amendments  to  the  American  Constitution.     Ser- 
vile insurrection  in  Hayti. 

1792.  War    between     France,    Austria    and     Prussia. 
French   Revolution   continued.     Mob    massacres 
the  Swiss  Guards  in  the  palace  of  the  Tuileries. 
French  Republic  proclaimed.    Battle  of  Valma  be- 
tween French  Republicans  and  foreign  supporters 
of  the  king.     Trial  of  Louis  XVI. 

1793.  Louis  XVI.  executed.    War  between  France  and 
England.     Reign  of  Terror  in  France.    Charlotte 
Corday  assassinates    Marat.      Execution    of   the 
queen.       Poland    divided    a   second    time.      Eli 
Whitney  invents  the  cotton  gin.      France  eman- 
cipates the  slaves  of  Hayti  and  joins  with  them 
under  Toussaint  L'Ouverture  against  the  Spanish 
and  English. 

1794.  Death  of  Danton  and  Robespierre,  leaders  of  the 
French  Revolution.     Whiskey  rebellion  in  Penn- 
sylvania.    General  Wayne  defeats  the  Indians  on 
the  Maumee. 

1 795-  "  The  little  Corsican  officer "  and  the  "  whiff  of 
grape-shot "  suppresses  an  insurrection  in  Paris. 
Poland  divided  for  the  third  time. 

1796.  Bonaparte  invades  Italy.     Death  of  Catherine  II. 
of    Russia.     Washington's   farewell    address    de- 
livered. 

1797.  Bonaparte   invades  Austria.     Hostilities    on    the 
sea  begin  between  America  and  France.     British 
win  naval  victory  at  Cape  Vincent  over  Spain ;  at 
Camperdown  over  Holland. 

1798.  Bonaparte  goes  to  Egypt;  captures  Malta.     Lord 
Nelson  destroys  French  fleet  at  the  battle  of  the 


140  THE    PASSING   OF    SPAIN    AND 

Nile  and  recaptures  Malta.  Jenner  publishes 
his  discovery  of  vaccination.  Count  Rumford 
announces  "  Heat  is  a  mode  of  motion." 

1799.  Bonaparte  victorious  at  Aboukir  (Battle  of  the 
Pyramids).    Austrian  and  Russian  armies  advance 
on  France.     Bonaparte  returns  from  Egypt;  over- 
throws  Directory;    is  made  consul.     New  York 
begins  the  emancipation  of  her  slaves. 

1800.  England,    Scotland,    Ireland    and    Wales    unite 
under  title  of  United  Kingdom  of  Great  Britain. 
Moreau  (French)  wins  the  battle  of  Hohenlinden. 
Spain  gives  Louisiana  back  to  France. 

1801.  Paul,  Czar  of  Russia,  assassinated.     Accession  of 
Alexander   I.      Louisiana   ceded    to    France    by 
Spain.       John    Marshall    made    Chief    Justice. 
Toussaint     L'Ouverture     declares     Hayti     free. 
Farragut  born.     (d.  1870.) 

1802.  West  Point  Military  Academy  established.  France 
subjugates  Switzerland.     Kossuth  born.    (d.  1885.) 
Victor    Hugo    born.    (d.  1885.)      Peace   between 
England   and    France.      Napoleon    made    First 
Consul  for  life. 

1803.  War    between    England    and    France    renewed. 
France   sells    Louisiana   to  the    United    States. 
Sheep  farming  introduced  into  Australia.     Erics- 
son born.     (d.  1889). 

1804.  Napoleon  declared  Emperor  for  life;   completes 
Code  of  Napoleon,  the  civil  law  of  France.     Lewis 
and  Clark  explore  the  Northwest  territory.     Deca- 
tur  captures  and  burns  the  "  Philadelphia  "  under 
the  guns  of  Tripolitan  fort. 

1805.  Duel  of  Hamilton  and  Burr.     Napoleon  secures 
the  crown  of  Italy;  plans  the  invasion  of  England; 
occupies  Vienna;   wins   the   battle  of  Austerlitz. 
Naval  battle  of  Trafalgar,  and  the  death  of  Nelson. 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA. 

End  of  Tripolitan  war  with   United  States,  and 
the  payment  of  tribute. 

1806.  Issue  of  British  Order  in  Council  (May)  declaring 
that  all  the  coasts,  ports  and  rivers  from  the  Elbe 
to  Brest  should  be  considered  blockaded.     Issue 
of  Napoleon's  Berlin  decree  (November)  charging 
England  with  violation  of  the  national  law,  and 
ordering : 

First.  That  the  British  Islands  should  be  in 
a  state  of  blockade. 

Second.  All  commerce  and  correspondence 
with  them  prohibited. 

Third.  British  subjects  in  a  country  occupied 
by  French  troops,  or  by  troops  of  their  allies, 
should  be  prisoners  of  war. 

Fourth.  All  property  belonging  to  British 
subjects  should  be  deemed  a  good  prize. 

Fifth.  No  vessel  direct  from  England  or  her 
colonies  might  enter  any  port  subject  to  French 
authority. 

Holy  Roman  Empire  broken  up.  Francis  II., 
the  emperor,  henceforth  known  as  Emperor  of 
Austria.  Napoleon  defeats  Prussia  at  Jena; 
makes  Louis  Bonaparte  King  of  Holland.  Eng- 
land secures  Cape  of  Good  Hope  from  the  Dutch. 

1807.  Jerome    Bonaparte    made  King   of    Westphalia. 
Nelson    destroys    fleet    in    Copenhagen    harbor. 
Trial  of   Aaron    Burr   for   treason.     British  fire 
upon  and  capture  United  States  frigate  "  Ches- 
apeake." 

Second  British  Order  in  Council  prohibits  any 
vessel  from  trading  with  an  enemy's  port  shut 
against  English  vessels ;  orders  English  war  ships 
to  warn  neutrals  against  such  action,  and  to 
capture  and  declare  them  prizes  in  the  event  of 
their  continuing  such  trade  after  warning. 


142  THE    PASSING    OF    SPAIN    AND 

Napoleon's  Warsaw  decree  ordered  the  con- 
fiscation of  all  English  merchandise  found  in 
certain  German  towns. 

Third  English  Order  in  Council  (November) 
declares  that  all  countries  where  the  English  flag 
is  excluded,  even  though  not  at  war  with  Britain, 
are  placed  under  the  same  restrictions  for  com- 
merce as  if  they  were  blockaded. 

Napoleon's  Milan  decree  (December)  declares 
that  any  vessel,  of  whatever  nation,  submitting  to 
England's  November  order,  will  be  considered 
British  property  and  condemned  as  a  prize.  By 
these  decrees  the  neutral  commerce  of  the  world 
suffered  great  damage. 

1808.    Napoleon  seats  Joseph  on  the  throne  of  Spain. 
Spain  revolts.     Siege  of  Saragossa. 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  143 

CHAPTER  IV. 
Ferdinand  VII.  —  1 808- 1 833. 

Ferdinand  was  the  oldest  son  of  Charles  IV.  and 
Maria  Louisa  of  Parma;  born  October  14,  1784;  died 
September  29,  1833.  Upon  the  abdication  of  his  father 
he  acceded  to  the  throne  March  igth.  This  was  no  part 
in  Napoleon's  plan,  and  within  a  few  days  Madrid  was 
occupied  by  the  French  troops  under  Murat.  Napoleon 
compelled  Charles  and  Ferdinand  to  renounce  their 
rights  to  the  throne,  and  proclaimed  Joseph  Bonaparte 
king  of  Spain. 

"  A  general  cry  of  indignation  arose  in  Spain.  The 
people  everywhere  flew  to  arms,  except  where  prevented 
by  the  presence  of  the  French  troops.  They  proposed 
not  to  meet  the  enemy  in  pitched  battles  in  the  open  field, 
but,  to  harass,  wear  out,  and  overcome  him  by  guerilla  or 
discursive  'and  incessant  attacks  of  separate  small  bands. 

General  Dupont  advanced  as  far  as  Cordova,  but  was 
defeated  at  Baylen  July  2oth  and  compelled  to  surrender. 
On  this  occasion,  the  commencement  of  the  French 
reverses  in  Spain,  18,000  French  soldiers  laid  down  their 
arms.  Such  was  the  exasperation  of  the  people  against 
their  invaders  that  numbers  of  the  French  were  massacred 
on  their  road  to  Cadiz  for  embarkation,  and  the  remainder 
were  treated  with  barbarous  inhumanity.  These  cruelties 
had,  however,  been  provoked  by  the  atrocities  of  the 
French  at  the  capture  and  sack  of  Cordova."  : 

England  proclaimed  a  peace  with  the  Spanish  govern- 
ment about  as  soon  as  the  insurrection  broke  out,  and  the 
latter  part  of  July  Wellington,  with  about  10,000  troops, 
landed  on  the  peninsula.  Sir  John  Moore,  at  the  head 
of  another  division  of  about  1 1,000,  also  arrived  and  was 

*  Dyer's  "  History  of  Modern  Europe." 


144 


THE    PASSING    OF    SPAIN    AND 


directed  to  unite  with  the  Spanish  army  and  expel  the 
French.  He  was  unable  to  find  the  army.  Napoleon 
had  appeared  in  person,  taken  command  of  the  French 
and  scattered  the  Spanish  forces.  Moore  conducted  a 
most  masterly  retreat  to  Corunna  and  fell  mortally 
wounded  while  his  troops  were  re-embarking. 

Spain  was  now  the  scene  of  a  terrible  struggle  until 
Napoleon's  abdication  in  1814,  though  by  this  time  the 
French  had  practically  been  driven  out  by  the  English 
under  Wellington,  who  had  not  lost  a  battle. 

Ferdinand,  who  had  been  in  retirement  on  a  pension 
from  Napoleon,  now  appeared,  was  acknowledged  king 
and  began  to  quarrel  with  his  people.  Spain  could  not 
readily  lay  aside  the  habits  that  the  long  guerrilla  war 
had  induced,  and  the  people  were  broken  up  into  numer- 
ous little  parties,  mostly  represented  by  leaders  who  were 
intent  only  upon  their  own  personal  advancement.  The 
French  intervened  in  1820.  Some  sort  of  order,  by  the 
help  of  the  French  army,  was  preserved  until  they  left  in 
1827,  but  then  another  insurrection  broke  out.  Spain 
was  experiencing  troublous  times  and  nearly  all  her 
American  provinces  seized  the  opportunity  to  declare 
their  independence. 

"  The  conduct  of  Ferdinand  was  in  evero  way  humili- 
ating and  caused  the  Spaniards  in  general  to  consider 
that  their  best  blood  had  been  spilled  in  vain  and  that, 
however  humiliating  the  rule  of  Bonaparte,  they  might 
under  him,  enjoy  their  constitutional  freedom  which  their 
restored  sovereign  denied  them ;  for  it  was  evident 
enough  that  the  king  had  determined  to  be  content  with 
nothing  short  of  despotic  authority. 

Ferdinand,  backed  by  the  French  troops,  was  unpopu- 
lar with  the  church  or  conservative  party,  who  favored 
his  brother  Don  Carlos.  His  third  wife  died  in  May, 
1829,  leaving  him  without  an  heir,  and  Don  Carlos  was 
expected  to  succeed  to  the  throne.  When,  in  December 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  145 

of  the  same  year,  Ferdinand  married  Maria  Christina  of 
Naples,  the  Carlists  were  sorely  disappointed  and,  when, 
in  March,  1830,  he  issued  a  decree  abrogating  the  Salic 
law,  which  had  been  in  force  in  Spain  since  1713,  their 
anger  knew  no  bounds.  By  the  Salic  law  of  Spain  the 
succession  to  the  throne  was  restricted  to  the  nearest 
male  heir.  By  its  repeal  females  were  eligible.  The 
Carlists  warmly  protested.  In  October,  1830,  a  daughter 
(Isabella  II.)  was  born  to  him,  and  in  June,  1833,  he 
solemnly  declared  her  his  successor,  nominated  Christina 
as  regent,  and  ordered  Don  Carlos  and  his  numerous 
sympathizers  to  leave  the  kingdom.  Ferdinand  did  not 
long  survive  this  act,  but  he  had  lived  long  enough  to  see 
the  loss  of  his  American  colonies,  whose  aggregate  area 
was  greater  than  that  of  all  Europe. 

Florida. 

The  Spanish  claim  to  Florida  dates  from  its  discovery 
by  Ponce  de  Leon  in  1512. 

The  first  settlement,  however,  was  made  by  French 
Huguenots.  In  1568  three  ships  were  fitted  out  by  the 
famous  French  Protestant  leader  Coligny  and  placed 
under  the  command  of  Laudonniere,  who  was  instructed 
to  found  a  colony  in  Florida  for  the  Huguenots.  They 
reached  the  shore  of  Florida  near  the  St.  John's  river, 
and  built  a  fort  called  Carolina.  They  were  not  desirable 
colonists  and  mutinies  were  frequent.  A  party  of  them 
manned  a  vessel  and  began  a  career  of  piracy  against  the 
Spaniards.  The  vessel  was  taken  and  most  of  the  men 
captured  and  sold  as  prisoners  or  slaves.  A  few  escaped 
and  returned  to  the  colony.  Supplies  from  France 
reached  them  in  1565  and  it  seemed  as  though  the  fol- 
lowers of  John  Calvin  were  about  to  found  a  permanent 
colony  in  the  New  World.  Spain  had  never  relinquished 
her  claim  to  this  territory  and  the  same  year  sent  a  party 
under  Melendez  to  colonize  Florida.  It  is  claimed  that 
10 


146  THE    PASSING    OF    SPAIN    AND 

through  the  treachery  of  Coligny's  enemies  at  the  French 
court  the  Spaniards  were  informed  of  the  struggling 
Huguenot  colony  and  instructions  given  Melendez  to 
destroy  it.  He  fell  upon  them  in  an  unguarded  moment 
and  captured  the  fort.  A nother  party  having  surrendered 
under  promise  of  safety  were  treacherously  stabbed  to 
death  in  cold  blood.  All  but  the  women  and  children 
under  fifteen  years  of  age  were  killed  and  in  the  first 
attack  even  some  of  these  were  not  spared. 

"  The  long  dispatch  in  which  Melendez  (Menendez) 
reported  his  fiendish  work  to  the  Spanish  king  has  been 
brought  to  light  in  the  archives  at  Seville,  and  there  is 
this  endorsement  on  it  in  the  handwriting  of  Philip  II., 
'  Say  to  him  that  as  to  those  he  has  killed  he  has  done 
well ;  and  as  to  those  he  has  saved  they  shall  be  sent  to 
the  galley.' "  They  were  avenged. 

A  young  Frenchman,  de  Gourgues,  sold  all  his  prop- 
erty and  bought  three  small  ships,  which  he  manned 
with  80  sailors  and  100  soldiers.  He  took  out  a  com- 
mission to  engage  in  the  slave  trade  on  the  coast  of 
Guinea  and  in  1567  set  sail.  When  he  reached  the 
West  Indies  he  disclosed  his  plan  to  his  followers,  who 
enthusiastically  supported  him.  On  arriving  at  the 
Florida  coast  he  found  that  the  natives,  having  received 
characteristic  treatment  at  the  hands  of  the  Spaniards, 
were  hostile  and  ready  to  ally  themselves  with  him  in  an 
attack  upon  the  colony. 

The  Spaniards  were  intrenched  in  three  forts  and 
greatly  outnumbered  their  opponents.  The  first  fort 
was  captured  by  surprise  and  a  panic  fell  upon  the  colo- 
nists. The  French  lost  hardly  a  man  and  according  to 
the  custom  of  the  times,  de  Gourgues  imitated  the  per- 
formance of  Melendez. 

Melendez  founded  a  new  settlement  the  next  year  and 
a  few  others  were  made  but  when  according  to  the  Treaty 

*  Parkman's  "  Pioneers  of  France  in  the  New  World." 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  147 

of  Paris,  1763,  East  Florida  passed  into  the  possession 
of  the  English,  the  whole  number  of  inhabitants  did  not 
exceed  3,000. 

During  the  American  Revolution  the  Spanish  gover- 
nor in  'New  Orleans  made  an  attack  upon  the  English 
forts  in  Florida  and  succeeded  in  capturing  them. 

By  the  treaty  of  1783  between  Great  Britain  on  one 
side,  the  allies,  France,  Spain  and  the  United  States,  on 
the  other,  England  restored  Florida  to  Spain,  but  the 
boundary  was  not  exactly  defined,  and  a  dispute  between 
Spain  and  the  United  States  at  once  arose.  Spain 
claimed  from  the  mouth  of  the  Yazoo  river  running  east 
to  the  Chattahoochee  and  everything  south  of  it.  This 
would  give  to  her  about  half  of  Mississippi  and  Alabama 
and  nearly  all  of  Georgia.  The  United  States  disputed 
this,  but  Spain  had  possession  of  the  territory  and 
strengthened  it  by  forts  at  Baton  Rouge,  Natchez,  Vicks- 
burg,  and  even  built  one  at  New  Madrid  in  Missouri,, 
just  south  of  the  mouth  of  the  Ohio.  This  she  made  a 
port  of  entry  and  compelled  boats  from  the  Ohio  to  land 
there  and  declare  their  cargoes. 

She  also  disputed  the  validity  of  the  title  to  the  terri- 
tory between  Mississippi  and  the  Allegheny  mountains, 
which  the  United  States  had  received  from  England. 
When,  in  addition  to  this,  she  came  to  deny  the  right  of 
free  navigation  of  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi,  it  is  easy 
to  see  that  excellent  grounds  for  a  quarrel  existed. 

Before  the  days  of  railroads  the  navigation  of  the 
Mississippi  was  indispensable  to  the  settlers  of  the  Ohio 
valley.  Spanish  possession  of  this  territory  was  a  con- 
stant source  of  irritation  and  numerous  conflicts  took 
place  between  the  Indians  and  escaped  negroes  from  the 
Georgia  plantations  on  the  one  hand  and  the  settlers  on 
the  other.  Probably  the  Americans  were  seeking  a 
quarrel,  and  a  ready  excuse  was  found  in  the  numerous 


148  THE    PASSING   OF    SPAIN    AND 

conflicts  between  the  whites  and  the  Indians  along  the 
frontiers. 

In  December  of  1817  General  Jackson  was  ordered  to 
take  command  of  the  military  forces  in  Georgia.  He 
wrote  President  Monroe,  "  Let  it  be  signified  to  me 
through  any  channel  that  the  possession  of  the  Floridas 
would  be  desirable  to  the  United  States  and  in  sixty  days 
it  will  be  accomplished."  Monroe  was  ill  and  did  not  see 
the  letter  for  a  year.  Calhoun,  as  secretary  of  war, 
issued  the  orders  to  Jackson,  who  probably  supposed  he 
had  the  tacit  permission  of  his  government  to  capture 
Florida,  With  characteristic  energy  he  marched  through 
Georgia  and  reached  the  fort  at  St.  Mark  in  March,  1818, 
which  he  reduced  and  hanged  two  alleged  English  agents 
on  the  charge  of  having  incited  the  Indians  to  hostility. 
He  turned  aside  and  captured  Pensacola  May  24th,  1818, 
deposed  the  Spanish  government  and  set  up  a  new  one 
and  left  a  garrison  there.  He  then  came  home.  The 
affair  created  great  excitement. 

The  United  States  gave  up  Pensacola  and  St.  Mark, 
but  defended  Jackson  on  the  plea  that  he  pursued  his 
enemies  (the  Indians)  to  their  refuge  in  Spanish  terri- 
tory, and  that  Spain  was  incompetent  or  unwilling  to 
perform  the  duties  that  devolved  upon  her. 

Jackson's  campaign  seems  to  have  had  some  effect 
upon  the  Spanish  government,  for  while  the  matter  was 
being  discussed  in  Congress  the  Spanish  minister  received 
instructions  from  home  to  sign  a  treaty  by  which  Florida 
was  ceded  to  the  United  States  in  consideration  of  the 
United  States  assuming  and  satisfying  various  claims 
against  the  Spanish  government  to  the  amount  of 
$5,000,000.  In  addition  the  United  States  further  ceded 
and  relinquished  to  Spain  all  claim  to  the  western  por- 
tion of  Louisiana  lying  south  of  the  Red  River  and  west 
of  the  Sabine,  and  now  forming  a  part  of  Texas. 


THE  ASCENDENCY  OF  AMERICA.          149 

Isabella  II.     1833-1868. 

Isabella  II.  is  the  daughter  of  Ferdinand  VII.  by  his 
fourth  wife,  Maria  Christina,  and  was  born  October  30, 
1830. 

On  the  death  of  Ferdinand,  September  29,  1833, 
Maria  Christina  was  declared  queen  regent,  and  at  once 
allied  herself  with  the  liberal  party  in  opposition  to  the 
church,  or  conservative  party,  who  supported  the  pre- 
tensions of  the  late  king's  brother,  Don  Carlos.  Civil 
war  at  once  broke  out  and  raged  with  great  violence  for 
seven  years.  War  in  Spain  has  never  been  divested  to 
any  great  extent  of  its  horrors,  and  when  there  is  added 
to  the  natural  temperament  of  the  people,  the  bitterness 
of  a  civil  strife,  the  picture  can  scarcely  be  overdrawn. 
The  Basques  recognized  Don  Carlos  as  Charles  V.,  and 
for  a  time  they  made  some  headway,  but  France  and 
England  allowed  recruiting  within  their  own  lines  for  the 
loyalist  army,  and  under  the  leadership  of  Espartero  the 
rebellion  was  crushed  and  Don  Carlos  and  his  followers 
exiled  by  a  decree  of  the  Cortes. 

Neither  her  private  life  nor  her  political  conduct  had 
endeared  Maria  Christina  to  the  people,  and  a  premier- 
president  was  appointed,  1840,  who  administered  the 
government  as  regent  until  Isabella  II.  was  declared  of 
age,  1843.  Her  reign  was  no  happier  than  that  of  the 
queen  regent.  In  1860  a  short-lived  Carlist  rebellion 
occurred,  but  it  was  unsuccessful,  and  the  leader  and  his 
brother  were  compelled  to  formally  renounce  all  claim  to 
the  throne  of  Spain.  In  1866  republican  insurrections 
broke  out,  which  were  temporarily  suppressed,  but  in 
1868  another  burst  forth  at  Cadiz,  which  rapidly  spread 
over  the  whole  country,  and  Isabella  was  forced  to  fly 
across  the  border  to  France.  After  Isabella's  flight 
there  was  a  provisional  government  for  two  years,  and 
then  in  1870,  Amadeus,  the  second  son  of  the  King  of 
Italy,  was  invited  to  become  King.  He  accepted  and 


THE    PASSING    OF    SPAIN    AND 

reigned  for  two  years,  but  never  received  the  support  of 
the  Carlists  nor  of  the  monarchists,  who  were  adherents 
of  Alphonso,  son  of  Isabella.  The  republicans,  under 
Castelar,  objected  to  any  king  on  general  principles. 
Seeing  that  he  could  never  hope  to  reconcile  such  strong 
and  diverse  opposition,  he  resigned  February,  1873.  A 
republic  was  then  declared  by  the  Cortes  and  Castelar 
made  president,  but  even  his  famous  eloquence  was  of 
no  avail,  and  he  at  last  consented  to  receive  the  son  of 
Isabella,  Alphonso  XII.,  who  was  proclaimed  King  in 
1874.  Alphonso  made  Canovas  (recently  assassinated) 
his  chief  adviser,  and  under  his  wise  administration  the 
domestic  affairs  of  Spain  made  considerable  improve- 
ment. 

Basque  Provinces. 

These  provinces  had  formerly  been  allowed  certain 
"  privileges,"  among  which  were  exemption  from  con- 
tributing directly  to  the  war  expenses  of  all  Spain  and 
from  furnishing  recruits  for  the  Spanish  army.  These 
privileges  were  vestiges  of  the  right  enjoyed  when  they 
were  governed  by  their  own  laws  as  Kingdom  of  Na- 
varre. Under  cover  of  their  privileges  they  had  raised 
money  and  recruits  for  the  Carlists.  By  the  abrogation 
of  these  local  customs  national  unity  was  established  in 
Spain,  but  the  provinces  resented  their  loss  and  are  to- 
day restless,  uneasy,  and  liable  at  any  time  to  declare  for 
Don  Carlos  if  opportunity  offers. 

Carlists. 

Don  Carlos,  Count  of  Molina,  second  son  of  Charles 
IV.;  born  1788;  died  1855.  He  had  expected  to  suc- 
ceed his  brother  Ferdinand  II.,  whose  only  heir  was  an 
infant  daughter,  Isabella  II.,  as  under  the  Salic  law  in 
force  in  Spain  since  1713,  a  female  could  not  succeed  to 
the  throne.  Ferdinand  abrogated  the  law,  1830,  and 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA. 

Don  Carlos  at  once  signified  his  intention  to  contest  the 
matter.  At  once,  on  the  death  of  Ferdinand,  he  began  a 
rebellion  which  lasted  seven  years. 

In  1845  he  renounced  his  claims  in  favor  of  his  son  of 
the  same  name,  and  withdrew  to  Trieste,  where' he  died. 

Don  Carlos,  Count  de  Montemolin,  son  of  the  preced- 
ing, born  1818;  died  1861.  Raised  a  revolt  against 
Isabella  in  1860,  but  without  success.  On  his  death  the 
claim  passed  to  his  brother,  Don  Juan,  who,  in  October, 
1868,  resigned  in  favor  of  his  own  son,  Don  Carlos,  the 
third  of  the  name. 

Don  Carlos,  Duke  of  Madrid,  born  March  30,  1848, 
son  of  Don  Juan  and  grandson  of  Don  Carlos  first.  His 
followers  rose  in  revolt  in  1868,  1870,  1872,  and  in  1873 
Don  Carlos  himself  entered  Spain  to  inspirit  his  men  and 
oppose  Alphonso  XII.  He  soon  mastered  Navarre, 
Biscay  and  Asturias,  and  the  revolt  assumed  serious  pro- 
portions, but  when  the  rebels  killed  a  German  citizen 
Bismarck  sent  forces  to  aid  in  restoring  order. 

The  Duke  is  too  indolent  and  has  led  too  gay  a  life  to 
render  him  a  dangerous  personage  to  the  present  govern- 
ment, and  he  will  probably  leave  his  affairs  in  the  hands  of 
his  son  Don  Jayme,  or  Jainie,  Prince  of  Asturias,  who  is 
about  twenty-eight  years  of  age. 

During  Alfonso  XII.'s  administration  a  new  con- 
stitution was  adopted  (1876),  the  same  under  which  they 
are  now  governed,  and  some  progress  toward  much- 
needed  reforms  made,  when  he  suddenly  died,  November, 
1885,  leaving  his  wife,  Maria  Christina,  Archduchess  of 
Austria,  queen  regent  for  their  posthumous  son,  Al- 
phonso XIII. 

Birth  of  Alphonso  XIII. 

The  death  of  Alphonso  had  been  awaited  as  a  signal 
for  a  civil  struggle,  and  the  Carlists  saw  their  hopes 
dashed  to  the  ground  when  the  new  heir  to  the  Bourbon 


THE    PASSING    OF    SPAIN    AND 

throne  was  born  at  Madrid,  May  17,  1886,  in  the  presence 
of  the  Ministers  of  State,  his  cabinet  officers  and  mem- 
bers of  the  Regency  and  Privy  Council.  This  rather 
extraordinary  proceeding  was  the  result  of  a  report  which 
had  circulated  that  a  bogus  heir  to  the  throne  was  to  be 
palmed  off  on  the  Spanish  people,  so  that  when  the  un- 
happy child  first  opened  his  eyes  he  found  himself  in  the 
midst  of  a  cabinet  council.  Each  Spanish  queen  had 
theoretically  been  subjected  to  this  ordeal,  but  never,  at 
least  in  modern  times,  had  this  been  strictly  enforced. 
The  Spaniards  rallied  around  the  queen  regent  and  the 
baby  king,  doing  everything  in  their  power  for  the  con- 
tinuance of  the  Bourbon  regime. 

The  boy  king  knows  that  his  situation  is  a  pathetic 
and  precarious  one.  He  has  had  no  happiness  in  his 
short  life,  and  he  knows  there  is  no  one  in  the  peninsula 
whom  he  can  count  upon  except  his  mother,  a  helpless 
woman  and  a  stranger  to  Spain.  From  the  time  he  left 
his  cradle  the  little  fellow  has  been  surrounded  by  the 
stiff  ceremonials  of  the  Spanish.  He  can  have  no  play- 
mates, because  in  the  kingdom  he  has  no  peer.  He 
knows  that  politics  is  a  game  that  is  more  cruel  than  war, 
and  that  Spaniards  are  past  masters  in  the  arts  of  diplo- 
macy and  duplicity. 

According  to  the  law  in  Spain  the  king  attains  his 
majority  at  the  age  of  fifteen  years;  so,  but  for  the  Cuban 
trouble,  he  might  have  ascended  the  throne  with  some 
prospect  of  a  fairly  peaceable  reign.  As  it  is  the  country 
is  bankrupt,  the  war  in  Cuba  and  the  insurrection  in  the 
Philippine  Islands  are  rapidly  draining  its  vital  forces, 
and  the  present  outlook  is  gloomy  in  the  extreme. 

The  Carlists  hope  that  Alphonso  may  never  live  to 
wear  his  father's  crown.  Should  the  king  die,  no  woman 
with  Bourbon  blood  in  her  veins  will  be  allowed  to 
ascend  the  throne,  as  the  disastrous  reigns  of  Queen 
Christina  and  Queen  Isabella  II.  are  fresh  in  the  mem- 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  153 

ories  of  all.  If  Alphonso  should  die  his  eldest  sister 
would  probably  marry  Don  Jainie,  the  son  of  Don 
Carlos,  the  Carlist  Pretender.  This  would  satisfy  both 
monarchical  parties  and  free  Spain  from  the  possibility 
of  civil  war.  The  outcome  of  the  present  struggle  is 
difficult  to  foresee,  and  Spain  may  emerge  a  republic. 

By  the  exercise  of  great  courage,  shrewdness  and 
diplomacy  Spain  acquired  princely  possessions  in  the 
new  world,  but  in  the  administration  of  these  colonies 
she  has  ever  displayed  stupidity,  bigotry  and  oppression. 
As  a  mother  country  she  has  shown  her  utter  incapacity 
to  hold  the  love  and  respect  of  her  children,  and  it  now 
seems  as  though  she  will  not  long  be  able  to  maintain 
even  the  nominal  supremacy  she  claims  over  the  few 
that  are  left  to  her. 

Once  all  Europe  stood  in  awe  of  her,  and  the  Spanish 
infantry  was  the  terror  of  the  military  world.  Able 
soldiers  and  sailors  of  other  nations  flocked  to  her  stand- 
ard and  their  achievements  alone  would  have  immortal- 
ized any  nation.  What  reward  had  they  who  gave  a 
continent  to  her? 

Ximenes,  whose  statesmanship  saved  Spain  for  Charles 
I.,  was  treated  with  great  ingratitude  and  died  in  his  old 
age  without  being  even  granted  an  audience  with  the 
king  whose  crown  he  had  saved. 

Balboa's  discoveries  brought  him  the  enmity  of  his 
jealous  governor  and  cost  him  his  life  on  a  manufactured 
charge  of  treason. 

Cortez,  who  conquered  Mexico,  was  recalled  and  died 
in  poverty  and  disgrace. 

Pizarro,  who  secured  with  Peru  the  enormous  treasures 
of  the  Inca,  was  assassinated  by  his  own  soldiers. 

Ponce  de  Leon  was  not  successful  in  his  search  for 
the  fountain  of  youth  and  died  in  his  old  age,  shattered 
in  mind  and  body  by  the  exposures  of  the  expedition. 


1^4  THE    PASSING    OF    SPAIN    AND 

Magellan  was  probably  killed  by  his  sailors  and 
Columbus  died  a  broken-hearted  old  man. 

The  achievements  of  these  men  constitute  the  bright- 
est period  in  Spain's  history.  Is  their  fate  prophetic  of 
her  sovereignty? 

Synopsis  of  Events  Contemporary  with  this  Period. 

1809.  Wellington  takes  command  of  the  English  forces 
in  the  Peninsula. 

1810.  Napoleon  divorces  Josephine  and  marries  Maria 
Louisa  of  Austria.     George  III.  of  England  has 
his  final  attack  of  insanity. 

1812.  Napoleon    quarrels  with    the    Czar    and   invades 
Russia.     Moscow  burned  and  the  French  begin 
their   disastrous   retreat.     War  between    United 
States  and  Great  Britain. 

1813.  Holland  regains  her  independence  from  France. 
Perry's  victory  on  Lake  Erie.     Buffalo  burned  by 
the  British. 

1814.  Napoleon  abdicates  and  is  sent  to  Elba.     Louis 
XVIII.  becomes  King  of  France.     McDonough 
wins  his  victory  on  Lake  Champlain.     Stephen- 
son   builds   the   "  Rocket,"   the    first   locomotive. 
British  burn  public  buildings  in  Washington. 

1815.  Napoleon  escapes  from    Elba   and  reigns  "One 
Hundred  Days."     Louis  XVIII.  flies.     Battle  of 
Waterloo;  Napoleon  surrenders;  the  British  send 
him    to    St.    Helena.       Marshal    Ney   executed. 
Jackson  wins  his  victory  at  New  Orleans. 

1818.  Chili    becomes    independent.      Jackson    invades 
Florida  and  hangs  two  British  agents. 

1819.  Voyage  of  the  "  Savannah,"  the  first  steamship  to 
cross    the   Atlantic.      Venezuela    becomes    inde- 
pendent. 

1820.  George  III.  dies  and  his  son  George  IV.  accedes 
to   the   throne.      The   "  Missouri    Compromise " 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  155 

adopted,  excluding  slavery  in  the  territories  north 
of  36°  30'.    The  Holy  Alliance  meets  at  Laybach. 

1821.  Mexico    becomes    independent.      Peru    becomes 
independent  by  aid  of  the  Chileans.     Spain  cedes 
Florida  to  the  United  States. 

1822.  Brazil    declared    independent   of    Portugal    and 
Dom   Pedro  made  Emperor. 

1823.  Monroe    doctrine    set   forth    in    the    President's 
annual  message. 

1824.  Louis  XVIII.  of  France  dies,  succeeded  by  his 
brother  Charles  X. 

1825.  Formal    opening   of   the    Erie   canal.     England 
carries  first  passengers  by  steam  over  the  Stock- 
ton and  Darlington  Railway. 

1828.  Construction  of  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio  Railroad 
begun. 

1829.  Slavery  abolished  in  Mexico. 

1830.  George  IV.  dies;  his  brother  William  IV.accedes. 
Revolution    of    Paris.     Charles    X.  flies.     Louis 
Philippe  made   king.     Joseph   Smith   issues  his 
"  Book  of  Mormon." 

1832.  Nullification  movement  in  South  Carolina. 

1833.  England  begins  the  emancipation  of  slaves  in  the 
West  Indies. 

1836.  Texans    defeat    Mexicans    at    San    Jacinto    and 
establish  their  independence. 

1837.  William   IV.  of  England  dies.     Queen  Victoria 
accedes.     Financial  panic  in  the  United  States. 
"  Patriot  "  rebellion  in  Canada. 

1839.  Daguerre  makes  his  discoveries  in  photography. 

1840.  Queen    Victoria    married    to    Prince    Albert   of 
Saxe-Coburg.     Mormons  settle  in  Nauvoo,  111. 

1841.  Afghanistan  revolts  against  British  rule,  and  the 
disastrous  retreat   of   the  English   begins.     The 
"  Brook  Farm  "  association  formed. 


156  THE    PASSING   OF   SPAIN    AND 

1842.    Ashburton  treaty  settles  the  northeastern  bound- 
ary question.     Dorr  rebels  in  Rhode  Island. 

1844.  Morse  completes  telegraph  line  between  Wash- 
ington and  Baltimore.     A  Nauvoo  mob  murders 
Joe  Smith,   founder  of   Mormonism,   and  expels 
the  Mormons. 

1845.  Texas  annexed  to  the  United  States,  after  nine 
years  of  independence. 

1846.  Famine  in  Ireland.     Repeal  of  the  British  "Corn 
Laws."     War  between  United  States  and  Mexico. 
Mormons  go  from   Nauvoo  to  Great  Salt  Lake. 
Oregon  boundary  dispute  settled  by  adoption  of 
the  49th  parallel  instead  of  u  54°  40'  or  fight" 

1848.  The     revolution     in     France      deposes      Louis 
Phillippe.     The  second  republic  organized  with 
Louis   Napoleon  Bonaparte  as  President.     Gold 
discovered  in  California.   , 

1849.  Kossuth  declares  Hungary  independent.     Austria 
crushes  rebellion  by  aid  of  Russia. 

1850.  The    "Fugitive    Slave    Law"  passed.      Clayton- 
Bulwer  treaty  ratified. 

1851.  Louis    Napoleon  becomes    Dictator.      Gold  dis- 
covered in  Australia. 

1853.  Commodore  Perry  opens  Japanese  ports. 

1854.  Repeal  of  the  "  Missouri  Compromise."     Birth  of 
Republican     party.       Crimean    war;     England, 
France,    Sardinia   and    Turkey   against    Russia. 
Siege   of    Sebastopol    begins.       Battle    of    Bala- 
clava and  charge  of  the  "  Six  Hundred." 

1856.    Crimean    war  ended.      "Declaration  of    Paris" 
agreed  upon. 

1858.  Atlantic  cable  first  laid;  not  a  success. 

1859.  John   Brown  seizes  Harper's  Ferry;  is  captured, 

tried  and  executed. 

1860.  Abraham    Lincoln    elected    President.       South 
Carolina  secedes. 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  157 

1861.  American  Civil  War  begins.     Unionists  defeated 
at  Bull  Run.     Captain  Wilkes  stops  the  English 
steamer    "  Trent,"    and    takes    off    Mason    and 
Slidell,   which    threatened    to   involve    war   with 
England. 

1862.  Stonewall    Jackson's   campaign   in   the   Shenan- 
doah   Valley.      Grant  captures   Fort   Donaldson 
and  wins   the  battle  of  Shiloh.     Battle  between 
the    Merrimac    and    Monitor.      Battles   of    Fair 
Oaks  and  Malvern  Hill  and  McClellan's  advance 
and  retreat  by  way  of  the  peninsula.     The  cruiser 
Alabama    begins   her   career.     Napoleon  makes 
Maximilian  of  Austria  Emperor  of  Mexico;  pro- 
test of  the  United  States. 

1863.  Lincoln  issues  the  "Emancipation  Proclamation." 
Vicksburg  captured.     Hooker  defeated  at  Chan- 
cellorsville  and  death  of  Jackson.     Battle  of  Get- 
tysburg.    Chinese  Gordon  appointed  to  command 
in  China. 

1864.  The  Kearsarge  sinks  the  Alabama.     Sherman's 
march  to  the  sea.     Sheridan's  campaign  in  the 
Shenandoah  Valley.     Farragut  passes  the  forts  at 
Mobile.     Gordon  suppresses  Taiping  rebellion  in 
China. 

1865.  Lee    surrenders    at   Appomattox    Court    House. 
Lincoln  assassinated.     Johnson  surrenders. 

1866.  Atlantic  cable  successfully  laid.     Fenians  in  the 
United  States  invade  Canada. 

1867.  France  withdraws  from  Mexico.     Maximilian  ex- 
ecuted. 

1868.  Burlingame  treaty  made  between  China  and  the 
United  States. 

1 869.  Suez  canal  opened.  "  Black  Friday  "  in  New  York. 

1870.  War   between     France    and    Germany;     France 
utterly  defeated  in  less  than  six  months. 

1871.  France    cedes   Alsace    and   part   of   Lorraine   to 
Germany   and    pays     $1,000,000,000    indemnity. 
The  German  states  unite  to  form  an  empire  and 


158  THE    PASSING    OF    SPAIN    AND 

King  William  of  Prussia  becomes  the  German 
Emperor.  Chicago  fire.  Stanley  finds  Dr.  Liv- 
ingston in  Africa. 

1872.  Geneva  tribunal  decides  "Alabama  Claims"  in 
favor  of  the  United  States  and  England  pays 
$15,500,000  for  her  failure  "to  use  due  diligence 
in  performance  of  neutral  obligations." 

1876.  Centennial    exhibition    in     Philadelphia.      Tele- 
phone exhibited. 

1877.  Election  of  Pope  Leo  XIII. 

1879.  War  between  Chile  and  Peru,  in  which  Peru  is 
defeated  and  loses  territory. 

1 88 1.  The  French  occupy  Tunis.     The  Mahdi  begins 
his  disturbance  in  the  Soudan.      Czar  Alexander 

II.  assassinated;  his  son,  Alexander  III.,  accedes. 
Garfield  assassinated.    War  between  Great  Britain 
and  the  Boers.     The  English  defeated  at  Maiuba 
Hill. 

1882.  De  Lesseps  begins  work  on  the  Panama  canaL 
The  British  bombard  Alexandria. 

1883.  The  Mahdi  wipes  out   an  English  army  in  the 
Soudan. 

1884.  French  war  in  Tonquin,  China. 

1888.  William  I.,  Emperor  of  Germany,  dies;  succeeded 
by  Frederick  III.,  who  dies  in  a  short  time  and  is 
succeeded  by  William   II.,  the  present  Emperor. 

1889.  Dom   Pedro  deposed  and  Brazil   becomes   a  re- 
public. 

1890.  William  II.  dismisses  Bismarck.     Russia  expels 
the  Jews. 

1891.  The  Chilean  Congress  deposes  President  Balma- 
ceda.     Free  schools  established  in  England. 

1893.  World's  Fair  at  Chicago. 

1894.  War  between  China  and  Japan.     Czar  Alexander 

III.  dies;  Nicholas  II.  accedes. 

1897.  Celebration  of  the  Queen's  jubilee,  the  sixtieth 
anniversary  of  her  accession  to  the  throne.  War 
between  Greece  and  Turkey. 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  159 

CHAPTER  V. 

Growth  and  Loss  of  Spain's  American  Colonies. 

Argentine  Republic. 

The  pope  having  divided  the  new  world  between 
Spain  and  Portugal,  the  former  country  proceeded 
vigorously  to  explore  and  conquer,  and  soon  what  now 
comprises  the  Argentine  Republic  came  within  the 
sphere  of  her  influence. 

The  Rio  de  La  Plata  River  was  discovered  by  the 
Spanish  explorer  De  Solis  in  1515,  and  possession  was 
taken  for  the  crown  of  Spain.  Sebastian  Cabot  explored 
the  river  for  a  long  distance  in  1528,  and  planned  to 
colonize  the  country  for  Spain,  but  the  project  was  not 
well  received. 

The  city  of  Buenos  Ayres  was  founded  by  Mendoza 
in  1535,  who  had  taken  up  the  scheme  after  it  was  aban- 
doned by  Cabot.  The  country  was  extremely  fertile. 
There  were  no  mines,  and  the  natives  were  treated  much 
better  than  those  of  Peru  and  Mexico.  Comparatively 
few  Spanish  women  came  to  Argentine,  and  the  wives  of 
the  soldiers  were  from  the  native  stock. 

The  usual  wars  with  the  natives  took  place,  and  the 
country  passed  under  the  almost  undisputed  rule  of  the 
Jesuits  until  their  downfall  in  1767.  There  was  some 
trouble  with  their  neighbors,  the  Portuguese,  just  across 
the  river  at  Montevideo,  but  in  general  the  colony  pros- 
pered, and  in  1777  Uruguay  was  ceded  to  Spain  by 
Portugal,  and  under  the  title  of  Colonies  of  La  Plata, 
Argentine,  Paraguay,  Uruguay  and  Bolivia  were  governed 
by  one  viceroy.  The  British  attacked  them  in  1797, 
1803  and  1806,  but  were  never  able  to  secure  a  perma- 
nent hold,  and  were  driven  out  in  1807. 

When  Spain  passed  under  the  control  of  Napoleon  the 
colonies  were  dissatisfied,  and  began  (1810),  under  cover 
of  opposition  to  Napoleon,  their  struggle  for  independ- 


l6o  THE    PASSING    OF    SPAIN    AND 

ence,  and  a  confederation  was  formed.  The  spirit  soon 
spread  throughout  all  the  American  colonies.  Anarchy 
and  civil  war  ensued,  but  Spain  was  weak,  and  the  con- 
federation gained  their  last  and  decisive  victory  in  1821. 
Independence  assured,  they  set  up  separate  governments. 
The  Spaniards  were  never  able  to  regain  control  of  these 
colonies,  but  the  states  have  been  nearly  wrecked  by  their 
numerous  quarrels  among  themselves.  They  are  now  in 
better  condition,  and  Chile  and  Argentine  Republic 
promise  to  become  strong  nations.  Unfortunately,  be- 
tween these  two  there  is  a  disputed  boundary  question 
pending,  and  Chile  is  trying  to  force  an  immediate  settle- 
ment under  threat  of  war. 

Chile. 

The  early  inhabitants  of  Chile,  called  Araucanians, 
were  brave  and  warlike  About  1450  Peru,  which  enjoyed 
a  comparatively  high  degree  of  civilization,  invaded  and 
conquered  Chile,  and  at  the  time  of  the  Spanish  conquest 
of  Peru,  Chile  was  a  Peruvian  dependency. 

In  1540  Pizarro  sent  a  few  Spanish  soldiers  and  a  large 
body  of  Peruvians  into  Chile,  who  subdued  the  country 
and  established  Santiago  in  1541.  The  original  inhabi- 
tants were  never  thoroughly  conquered  by  the  Spaniards, 
although  an  incessant  and  costly  war  was  kept  up  until 
1724,  when  a  treaty  was  made  which  acknowledged  the 
freedom  of  the  Araucanians  and  defined  the  boundaries 
of  their  territory. 

When  Joseph  Napoleon  was  made  king  of  Spain,  the 
Chileans,  under  cover  of  support  to  the  dethroned  mon- 
arch, revolted,  formed  with  the  La  Plata  provinces  a 
confederation,  and  began  the  struggle  for  independence. 
The  Chileans  were  overpowered  by  Spanish  forces  from 
Peru,  and  in  1814  the  Provinces  of  La  Plata  sent  an 
army  to  their  assistance  under  the  command  of  San 
Martin,  styled,  for  his  success,  "  The  Liberator."  Chile 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  l6l 

was  speedily  freed  of  the  Spanish  forces,  and  in  their 
gratitude  they  would  have  made  San  Martin  president, 
but  he  declined  in  favor  of  General  O'Higgins,  who  was 
appointed  Director. 

O'Higgins  was  a  brave,  able  officer,  of  Irish  descent, 
under  whose  leadership  the  Chileans  were  able  to  hold 
their  own,  and  in  1818,  with  their  other  allies,  they 
carried  the  war  against  the  Spanish  into  Peru. 

In  1833  a  substantial  constitution  was  framed,  which 
has  rendered  them  excellent  service,  being  next  to  that 
of  the  United  States,  the  oldest  written^  constitution  in 
the  world. 

In  marked  contrast  to  the  usual  Spanish  colony  on 
gaining  its  independence,  Chile  has  had  but  one  insur- 
rection, that  from  1885  to  1891,  when  the  president,  de- 
claring himself  dictator,  was  overthrown,  strange  as  it 
may  seem,  by  the  moderate  and  conservative  parties. 

Mr.  Egan,  the  American  minister  at  Santiago,  ex- 
tended refuge  to  eighty  Balmacedists  after  their  over- 
throw, and  by  this  action  incurred  the  enmity  of  the 
congressional  party  and  caused  the  attack  of  the  Chilean 
mob  upon  the  crew  of  the  "  Baltimore  "  October  16,  1891, 
by  which  two  of  the  crew  were  killed  and  eighteen 
wounded.  The  United  States  demanded  satisfaction, 
and  the  Chileans  replied  in  an  insulting  manner.  Secre- 
tary Elaine  pressed  the  matter  vigorously,  and  January 
23,  1892,  they  made  a  complete  and  ample  apology, 
though  with  rather  bad  grace,  and  are  not  particularly 
cordial  toward  us  yet. 

Peru. 

Francisco  Pizarro  sailed  from  Panama  December  28, 
1531,  with  183  men,  37  horses  and  three  small  vessels. 
After  a  voyage  of  about  a  fortnight  he  landed  off  the 
coast  of  Peru,  disembarked  and  sent  his  ships  back  for 
reinforcements.  They  returned  with  30  men  and  26 
ii 


1 62  THE    PASSING   OF    SPAIN    AND 

more  horses.  With  this  party  he  undertook  the  con- 
quest of  a  country  as  large  as  that  part  of  the  United 
States  east  of  the  Mississippi  River,  and  so  thickly  popu- 
lated that  the  good  Las  Casas,  bishop  of  Chiapa,  and  the 
best  contemporary  historian,  says,  "  In  the  province  of 
Peru  alone  the  Spaniards  killed  above  40,000,000  people," 
while  it  was  a  colony  of  Spain. 

A  volume  would  not  suffice  to  tell  of  the  wonderful 
civilization  Pizarro  found. 

"  Through  the  entire  length  of  the  empire  two  great 
military  roads  were  built,  one  on  the  plateau,  the  other 
on  the  shore.  The  former,  for  nearly  2,000  miles,  crossed 
sierras  covered  with  snow,  was  thrown  over  ravines,  or 
went  through  tunnels  in  the  rocks;  it  scaled  the  more 
difficult  precipices  by  means  of  stairways.  Where  it  was 
possible,  it  was  carried  over  the  mountain  clefts  by  filling 
them  with  masonry,  or,  where  that  could  not  be  done, 
suspension  bridges  were  used,  the  cables  being  made  of 
osiers  of  maguey  fibres.  Some  of  these  cables  are  said 
to  have  been  as  thick  as  a  man  and  200  feet  long. 
Where  such  bridges  could  not  be  thrown  across,  and  a 
stream  flowed  in  the  bottom  of  the  mountain  valley,  the 
passage  was  made  by  ferry-boats  or  rafts.  As  to  the  road 
itself,  it  was  about  20  feet  in  width,  faced  with  flags 
covered  with  bitumen,  and  had  mile-stones.  Our  ad- 
miration at  this  splendid  engineering  is  enhanced  when 
we  remember  that  it  was  accomplished  without  iron  and 
gunpowder.  The  shore  road  was  built  on  an  embank- 
ment, with  a  clay  parapet  on  each  side,  and  shade  trees. 
Where  circumstances  called  for  it,  piles  were  used. 
Every  five  miles  there  was  a  post-house.  The  public 
couriers,  as  in  Mexico,  could  make,  if  necessary,  200 
miles  a  day.  Of  these  roads  Humboldt  says  that  they 
were  among  the  most  useful  and  most  stupendous  exe- 
cuted by  the  hand  of  man.  The  reader  need  scarcely  be 
told  that  there  were  no  such  triumphs  of  skill  in  Spain. 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  163 

"  In  Cuzco,  the  metropolis,  was  the  imperial  residence 
of  the  Inca  and  the  Temple  of  the  Sun.  It  contained 
edifices  which  excited  the  amazement  of  the  Spanish  ad- 
venturers themselves  —  streets,  squares,  bridges,  fortresses 
surrounded  by  turreted  walls,  subterranean  galleries  by 
which  the  garrison  could  reach  important  parts  of  the 
town.  Indeed,  the  great  roads  we  have  spoken  of  might 
be  regarded  as  portions  of  an  immense  system  of  military 
works  spread  all  over  the  country,  and  having  their  centre 
at  Cuzco. 

"  The  imperial  dignity  was  hereditary,  descending  from 
father  to  son.  His  (the  Inca)  diadem  consisted  of  a 
scarlet  tasseled  fringe  round  his  brow,  adorned  with  two 
feathers.  He  wore  earrings  of  great  weight.  His  dress 
of  lama-wool  was  dyed  scarlet,  inwoven  with  gold  and 
studded  with  gems.  Whoever  approached  him  bore  a 
light  burden  on  the  shoulder  as  a  badge  of  servitude,  and 
was  barefoot.  The  Inca  was  not  only  the  representative 
of  the  temporal,  but  also  of  the  spiritual  power.  He  was 
more  than  supreme  pontiff,  for  he  was  a  descendant  of 
the  Sun,  the  God  of  the  nation.  He  made  laws,  imposed 
taxes,  raised  armies,  appointed  or  removed  judges  at  his 
pleasure.  He  traveled  in  a  sedan  ornamented  with  gold 
and  emeralds;  the  roads  were  swept  before  him,  strewn 
with  flowers  and  perfumed.  His  palace  at  Yucay  was 
described  by  the  Spaniards  as  a  fairy  scene.  It  was  filled 
with  works  of  Indian  art;  images  of  animals  and  plants 
decorated  the  niches  of  its  walls;  it  had  an  endless  laby- 
rinth of  gorgeous  chambers,  and  here  and  there  shady 
crypts  for  quiet  retirement.  Its  baths  were  great  golden 
bowls.  It  was  embosomed  in  artificial  flowers. 

"  The  Peruvian  religion  ostensibly  consisted  of  a 
worship  of  the  Sun,  but  the  higher  classes  had  already 
become  emancipated  from  such  a  material  association, 
and  recognized  the  existence  of  one  almighty,  invisible 
God.  They  expected  the  resurrection  of  the  body  and 


164  THE    PASSING   OF    SPAIN    AND 

the  continuance  of  the  soul  in  a  future  life.  It  was  their 
belief  that  in  the  world  to  come  our  occupations  will 
resemble  those  we  have  followed  here. 

"  An  annual  survey  of  the  country,  its  farming  and 
mineral  products,  was  made,  the  inventory  being  trans- 
mitted to  the  government.  A  register  was  kept  of  births 
and  deaths;  periodically  a  general  census  was  taken. 
The  Inca,  at  once  emperor  and  pope,  was  enabled,  in 
that  double  capacity,  to  exert  a  rigorous  patriarchal  rule 
over  his  people,  who  were  treated  like  mere  children  — 
not  suffered  to  be  oppressed,  but  compelled  to  be 
occupied;  for,  with  a  wordly  wisdom  which  no  other 
nation  presents,  labor  was  here  acknowledged  not  only 
as  a  means,  but  also  as  an  end.  In  Peru  a  man  could 
not  improve  his  social  state;  by  these  refinements  of 
legislation  he  was  brought  into  an  absolutely  stationary 
condition.  He  could  become  neither  richer  nor  poorer; 
but  it  was  the  boast  of  the  system  that  every  one  lived 
exempt  from  social  suffering, —  that  all  enjoyed  com- 
petence. 

"  They  terraced  the  mountain  sides,  filling  the  terraces 
with  rich  earth.  They  excavated  pits  in  the  sand,  sur- 
rounded them  with  adobe  walls,  and  filled  them  with 
manured  soil.  On  the  low  level  they  cultivated  bananas 
and  cassava;  on  the  terraces  above,  maize  and  quinoa; 
still  higher,  tobacco;  and  above  that,  the  potato.  The 
whole  civilized  world  has  followed  them  in  the  cultivation 
of  the  potato.  The  Peruvian  bark  is  one  of  the  most 
invaluable  remedies.  Large  tracts  of  North  America 
would  be  almost  uninhabitable  without  the  use  of  its 
active  alkaloid  quinine,  which  actually,  in  no  insignifi- 
cant manner,  reduces  the  percentage  of  mortality 
throughout  the  United  States. 

"  Indispensably  necessary  to  their  agricultural  system 
were  their  great  water  works.  In  Spain  there  was 
nothing  worthy  of  being  compared  with  them.  The 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  165 

aqueduct  of  Condesuya  was  nearly  500  miles  long. 
Its  engineers  had  overcome  difficulties  in  a  manner  that 
might  well  strike  modern  times  with  admiration.  Its 
water  was  distributed  as  prescribed  by  law ;  there  were 
officers  to  see  to  its  proper  use.  From  these  great  water 
works  and  from  their  roads  it  may  be  judged  that  the 
architectural  skill  of  the  Peruvians  was  far  from 
insignificant."* 

Upon  the  arrival  of  Pizarro  at  the  capital  of  the  Inca 
he  was  cordially  received.  He  found  well  built  houses 
of  masonry  and  regulur  streets,  and  proceeded  to  dis- 
pose his  forces  so  as  to  occupy  the  best  strategic 
positions.  Without  any  suspicion  of  treachery,  Inca 
Atahualpa  prepared  to  make  him  a  visit.  Upon  a  given 
signal  the  Inca  was  suddenly  attacked,  made  prisoner 
and  his  people  slaughtered. 

The  Inea's  Ransom. 

Upon  his  release  he  offered  as  a  ransom  gold  enough 
to  fill  a  room  twenty-two  feet  long,  seventeen  feet  wide, 
and  as  hisfh  as  a  man  could  reach.  This  enormous 

C? 

treasure  was  collected  in  about  two  months,  and  after  the 
fifth  belonsnnof  to  the  crown  had  been  deducted  there 

• 

yet  remained  about  $18,000,000  to  be  divided  among  the 
conquerors.  The  treasure  secured,  Pizarro  at  once 
treacherously  put  the  Inca  to  death.  It  is  gratifying 
to  know  that  De  Soto  and  a  few  other  followers,  with 
Pizarro,  expressed  their  condemnation  in  the  warmest 
terms. 

The  Royal  Fifth. 

Such  were  the  wonderful  resources  of  the  country  that 
the  treasure  sent  Charles  V.  in  1595  from  Peru  and 
Mexico  amounted  to  $35.000,000.  The  country  was 
subjugated,  but  no  sooner  done  than  Pizarro  quarreled 

*  Draper's  "Intellectual  Development  of  Europe." 


1 66  THE    PASSING   OF    SPAIN    AND 

with  his  lieutenant,  Almagro,  whom  he  condemned  and 
put  to  death,  only  himself  to  fall  by  the  weapons  of 
assassins  a  little  later. 

Peru  was  for  a  long  time  the  richest  province  of  Spain 
in  South  America,  and  the  one  on  which  she  had  the 
strongest  hold.  A  revolt  occurred  in  1780,  led  by  the 
native  chief,  Tupac  Amaru,  a  descendent  of  the  Incas. 
It  all  but  succeeded,  and  so  frightened  were  the  tyrants 
that  the  most  horrible  cruelty  was  practiced  after  it  was 
suppressed.  Spain  had  too  strong  a  hold  on  Peru  for 
her  to  throw  off  the  yoke  when  the  other  South  Ameri- 
can colonies  revolted,  but  in  1820  assistance  arrived  from 
Chile  under  the  command  of  General  San  Martin,  and 
the  greater  part  of  Peru  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
patriots.  Independence  was  formally  proclaimed  July 
28, 1821,  and  San  Martin  assumed  the  title  of  "  Protector 
of  Peru."  As  soon  as  a  congress  was  assembled  San 
Martin  resigned  and  returned  to  Chile.  In  1823  the 
Spanish  forces  were  reinforced  and  gained  some  suc- 
cesses. Simon  Bolivar  of  Venezuela  came  to  the  assist- 
ance of  the  Peruvians,  was  received  with  great  rejoicing, 
and  made  dictator.  A  decisive  battle  took  place  Decem- 
ber 9,  1824,  at  Ayacucho,  the  greatest  ever  fought  for 
liberty  in  South  America,  and  the  Spanish  power  re- 
ceived its  death  blow. 

Peru  has  had  a  stormy  career  since  then,  and  has  sev- 
eral times  been  engaged  in  war  with  her  sister  republics, 
the  last,  especially  disastrous  for  her,  with  Chile,  1879  to 
1884,  from  which  the  country  has  not  yet  fully  recovered. 

Colombian  States. 

For  the  sake  of  convenience  we  shall  treat  the  history 
of  Colombia,  Venezuela  and  Ecuador  under  the  title  of 
the  Colombian  States,  as  their  experiences  with  Spain 
were  so  similar.  Colombia  was  visited  by  the  Spanish 
about  1535  and  in  1538  the  city  of  Bogota  was  founded. 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  l6/ 

Numerous  Spanish  colonies  at  once  sprang  up  and  the 
native  population  was  speedily  subjugated. 

Peru  was  the  richest  of  the  Spanish  possessions  and 
there  the  Viceroy  made  his  headquarters,  from  which  he 
governed  the  Colombian  States  as  dependencies  of  Peru. 
Numerous  rivalries  between  the  different  viceroys  and 
their  subordinates  frequently  arose  and  the  condition  of 
the  colonies  was  not  a  particularl  happy  one.  The 
Colombian  States  were  the  first  to  set  up  the  struggle  for 
independence,  perhaps  because  they  were  nearer  to  Europe 
and  in  closer  communication,  or  because  the  inhabitants 
were  better  informed  and  had  made  more  progress.  The 
native  population,  always  restless  and  uneasy  under 
Spanish  rule,  had  been  mercilessly  taxed  to  support  the 
wars  between  Spain  and  England,  and  the  French  revo- 
lution following  had  a  distinct  influence  in  increasing 
their  restlessness.  In  1797  the  British  captured  Trini- 
dad, and  keenly  alive  to  the  advantages  of  cutting  off 
Spain's  revenues  from  her  American  colonies  that  en- 
abled her  to  carry  on  her  wars  with  England,  began 
quietly  to  incite  the  states  to  revolution.  The  seed  fell 
on  fertile  soil,  for  some  of  the  colonists  had  taken  part  in 
the  American  revolution,  noticeably,  Francis  Miranda 
who,  holding  a  commission  from  France,  went  to  America 
in  the  expedition  France  sent  to  help  her  ally.  Of  course 
such  men  would  come  back  with  ideas  concerning  rights 
and  liberty  well  calculated  to  create  a  disturbance  in 
colonies  governed  as  were  those  of  Spain. 

Miranda  was  suspected  of  plotting  to  free  his  own 
country  and  for  his  personal  safety  thought  it  advisable 
to  go  to  France.  Later,  an  alliance  between  Spain  and 
France  rendered  that  refuge  untenable  and  he  passed 
over  to  England.  While  there  he  probably  became  the 
agent  of  the  British  government,  who  saw  an  opportunity 
to  strike  a  good  blow  at  Spain  by  severing  the  allegiance 
of  her  American  colonies.  He  went  to  Trinidad  in  1806, 


1 68  THE    PASSING   OF    SPAIN    AND 

where  he  was  joined  by  some  Americans  who  sympa- 
thized with  the  struggle  of  the  Spanish  colonies  for 
freedom,  and  at  the  head  of  about  500  volunteers,  largely 
made  up  of  English  and  American  sympathizers,  he 
landed  in  Venezuela.  The  time  was  not  ripe  and  he 
was  forced  to  return,  but  the  seed  was  sown  and  in  due 
time  brought  forth  fruit. 

The  abdication  of  the  Spanish  king  in  1808  and  the 
likelihood  of  Napoleon's  ambitious  plans  being  realized, 
did  much  to  dissipate  their  feeling  of  loyalty  to  the 
mother  country,  and  in  1810  the  Colombian  States  re- 
volted and  began  their  struggle  for  independence.  The 
insurgent  leaders  were  unable  to  combine  heartily,  dis- 
sensions arose,  treachery  penetrated  everywhere,  and  the 
attempt  was  unsuccessful.  So  great  a  part  did  personal 
advantage  play  and  at  so  low  an  ebb  was  patriotism, 
that  Colonel  Bolivar,  afterward  called  "  The  Liberator," 
was  accused  of  treachery  and  at  least  surrendered  his 
forces  to  the  royalists  without  any  great  provocation. 
The  soldiers  deserted  Miranda  and  he  was  forced  to  sur- 
render. In  utter  disregard  for  the  pledge  the  Spanish 
had  made  him  he  was  sent  to  Europe  and  died  in  prison. 

One  province,  New  Granada,  still  maintained  its  inde- 
pendence and  thither  Bolivar  took  his  way,  while  the 
rest  of  the  country  was  experiencing  the  usual  terror  of 
a  Spanish  re-conquest.  The  severity  the  conquerors 
used  in  suppressing  the  revolt  increased  rather  than 
crushed  the  spirit  of  independence.  Bolivar  entered  the 
service  of  New  Granada,  created  for  himself  a  new  char- 
acter, and  when  the  time  was  ripe,  reappeared  in  his 
native  province  at  the  head  of  an  army.  A  terrible  war, 
merciless  in  its  practice  was  waged,  but  Bolivar's  gener- 
alship succeeded  and  in  1813  he  entered  Caracas  and 
was  proclaimed  "Liberator"  of  Venezuela  and  later,  in 
1814,  "Supreme  Dictator."  The  royalists  rallied,  a 
frightful  civil  war  ensued  and  the  tide  swept  back  and 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  169 

forth  with  varying  fortunes.  At  last  in  1818  Bolivar,  by 
the  aid  of  French  and  British  auxiliaries,  gained  several 
important  victories  and  freed  the  states  from  the  crown 
of  Spain. 

Bolivar,  of  course,  became  president,  and  the  republic 
needed  him,  for  the  Spanish  still  held  several  fortified 
posts,  and  no  one  could  tell  at  what  moment  the  influence 
of  the  "  Holy  Alliance  "  might  turn  from  sympathy  to 
active  support.  However,  in  1823,  the  Columbian  States 
were  in  such  condition  that  he  felt  free  to  turn  his  attention 
to  the  Peruvians  in  their  struggle  for  freedom,  and 
entered  that  province  with  an  army  in  co-operation  with 
General  San  Martin,  the  "Liberator"  of  Chile.  Asa 
reward  for  his  success  he  was  made  the  popular  idol  of 
Peru  and  then  "  Dictator." 

Bolivar  deserves  his  reputation  as  a  successful  general. 
In  the  struggle  with  Spain  he  proved  himself  brave, 
able  and  patriotic.  If,  as  a  statesman,  his  head  became 
turned,  it  is  well  to  remember  that  he  was  treated  like  a 
a  demi-god  and  exposed  to  temptations  well  calculated 
to  try  the  fibre  of  the  staunchest  patriot  He  certainly 
freed  the  colonies  from  the  dominion  of  Spain,  whatever 
his  ultimate  ambitions  may  have  been.  He  died  De- 
cember 17,  1830,  having  outlived  his  popularity,  a  bitter, 
disappointed  man.  In  a  letter  to  a  friend  he  says:  "I 
have  been  in  power  for  nearly  twenty  years,  from  which 
I  have  gathered  only  a  few  definite  results. 

"  i.  America  is  for  us  ungovernable. 

"  2.  He  who  dedicates  his  services  to  a  revolution, 
plows  the  sea. 

"  3.  The  only  thing  that  can  be  done  in  America  is 
to  emigrate. 

"  4.  This  country  will  inevitably  fajl  into  the  hands  of 
the  unbridled  rabble,  and  little  by  little  become  a  prey 
to  petty  tyrants  of  all  color  and  races." 

For  many  years  the  affairs  of  the   states  were  in  a 


170  THE    PASSING    OF    SPAIN    AND 

deplorable  condition,  and  they  showed  themselves  but 
little  fitted  for  self-government.  The  confederation 
formed  in  a  common  cause  against  Spain  was  broken 
up  soon  after  their  object  was  accomplished,  and  the 
states  set  up  independent  governments.  "  The  Spanish 
misgovernment  left  a  legacy  of  bitterness  and  anarchy 
that  has  been  the  cause  of  much  misery.  Political 
passion  ran  high,  and  its  history  for  generations  has 
been  a  continual  struggle,  always  more  or  less  warlike." 
An  insurrection  is  now  in  progress  in  Venezuela. 

Mexico. 

For  many  centuries  prior  to  the  discovery  of  Mexico 
by  the  Spanish,  the  country  had  been  inhabited  by 
different  tribes  of  Indians,  some  of  whom  possessed  a 
high  degree  of  civilization.  Of  the  earlier  tribes,  the 
Toltecs,  whose  period  ranges  from  the  sixth  to  the 
eleventh  centuries,  were  the  furthest  advanced.  They 
built  temples  and  cities ;  they  had  a  year  of  365  days  to 
which  they  added  twelve  and  one-half  days  at  the  end 
of  every  fifty-two  years,  thus  bringing  it  within  a  small 
fraction  of  the  actual  length  of  the  solar  year.  Their 
religion  was  mild,  their  laws  simple  and  just.  The 
Aztecs,  the  succeeding  dominant  race,  were  better  war- 
riors, more  forceful  and  sanguinary.  They  believed  in 
one  invisible  supreme  God,  with  numerous  inferior 
divinities.  They  built  imposing  temples  to  their  local 
divinity  (Mexican  Mars)  and  offered  human  sacrifices 
before  his  altar.  According  to  their  traditions,  one  of 
their  divinities  had  retired  from  earth,  but  was  expected 
to  return.  It  was  this  superstition  that  rendered  their 
conquest  by  the  Spanish  much  easier;  for  the  first 
appearance  of  the  white  men  on  the  Mexican  coast  had 
filled  the  Montezuma  with  terror,  because  the  people 
were  expecting  the  return  of  their  God,  and  his  oracles 
had  told  him  that  his  overthrow  was  at  hand. 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA. 

It  was  by  accident,  not  by  intention,  that  the  Spaniards 
•first  beheld  the  shores  of  Mexico.  Cordova,  sailing  from 
Cuba  to  the  neighboring  isles  on  a  slaving  expedition 
(1517)  encountered  severe  storms,  and  was  uriven  west- 
ward until  he  sighted  the  coast  of  Yucatan.  Re- 
porting his  discovery  to  the  Governor  of  Cuba,  a  party 
under  Grijalva  was  sent  out  the  succeeding  year,  who 
made  extensive  explorations  along  the  coast  of  Mexico 
on  the  Carribean  side,  and  the  stories  told  by  the  sailors 
on  his  return  fired  the  imagination  of  Spanish  ad- 
venturers. The  Cuban  governor,  Valasquez,  selected 
one  of  his  boldest  adventurers,  Hernando  Cortez,  and 
placed  him  at  the  head  of  an  expedition  for  the  conquest 
and  occupation  of  the  new  country.  Before  the  final 
preparations  were  made  he  became  suspicious  of  Cortez's 
ambitions,  and  seemed  so  much  inclined  to  deprive  him 
of  his  command,  that  Cortez  hastily  departed  without 
waiting  to  complete  his  preparations.  He  landed  in 
1519  and  founded  Vera  Cruz,  established  a  government 
for  the  colony  sufficiently  to  technically  comply  with  the 
requirements  of  the  Spanish  law,  threw  off  the  authority 
of  the  Cuban  governor,  and  receiving  a  commission 
from  the  hands  of  the  government  he  had  established, 
scuttled  his  ships,  and  with  a  force  consisting  of  about 
450  Spaniards,  six  or  seven  cannon  and  fifteen  horses, 
set  out  to  conquer  the  powerful  inland  monarch  of 
whom  he  had  heard  so  much. 

Bernal  Diaz  Del  Castillo,  a  contemporary  historian, 
says  of  Cortez : 

"He  was  of  good  stature  and  strongly  built,  of  a 
rather  plain  complexion  and  serious  countenance,  an 
excellent  horseman  and  dexterous  in  the  use  of  arms; 
he  was  something  of  a  poet  and  a  very  good,  rhetorician, 
and,  as  I  have  been  told,  a  Bachelor  of  Laws.  He  was 
very  patient  under  insults  or  injuries.  Some  of  the 
soldiers  were  at  times  very  rude  and  abusive  to  him,  but 


172  THE    PASSING   OF    SPAIN    AND 

he  never  resented  their  conduct,  although  he  had  often 
great  reason  to  do  so.  Where  we  had  to  erect  a  fort- 
ress, Cortez  was  the  hardest  laborer  in  the  trenches; 
when  we  were  going  into  battle,  he  was  as  forward  as 
any ;  he  was  very  determined  and  headstrong  in  all 
business  of  war,  not  attending  to  any  remonstrances  on 
account  of  danger." 

Montezuma,  the  Aztec  Emperor  of  the  city  of 
Mexico,  held  sway  over  but  a  portion  of  the  territory 
which  now  comprises  that  country,  but  he  levied  tribute 
of  numerous  other  petty  kings  or  caciques,  and  Cortez 
found  them  ripe  for  revolt.  With  great  skill  and 
diplomacy  he  attached  them  to  his  own  cause,  and 
continued  his  march  upon  the  capital.  The  rude 
weapons  of  the  natives  could  not  contend  with  the 
armor,  artillery  and  horses  of  the  Spaniards,  and  the 
latter  especially  filled  them  with  terror.  However,  in 
his  skirmishes  two  horses  were  killed,  all  of  them  hurt 
and  many  Spaniards  wounded  before  he  reached  the 
capital  of  the  Montezumas,  which  we  will  allow  him 
to  describe  in  his  own  words. 

"  This  great  city  (Mexico)  is  situated  in  this  salt  lake, 
and  from  the  main  land  to  the  denser  parts  of  it,  by 
whichever  route  one  chooses  to  enter,  the  distance  is  two 
leagues.  There  are  four  avenues  or  entrances  to  the 
city,  all  of  which  are  formed  by  artificial  causeways,  two 
spears'  length  in  width.  The  city  is  as  large  as  Seville 
or  Cordova;  its  streets,  I  speak  of  the  principal  ones,  are 
very  wide  and  straight,  some  of  these,  and  all  the  in- 
ferior ones,  are  half  land  and  half  water,  and  are  navigated 
by  canoes.  All  the  streets  at  intervals  have  openings, 
through  which  the  water  flows,  crossing  from  one  street 
to  another,  and  at  these  openings,  some  of  which  are 
very  wide,  there  are  also  very  wide  bridges  composed  of 
large  pieces  of  timber  of  great  strength  and  well  put 
together ;  on  many  of  these  bridges  ten  horses  can  go 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  1/3 

abreast.  This  city  has  many  public  squares,  in  which  are 
situated  the  markets  and  other  places  for  buying  and 
selling.  There  is  one  square  twice  as  large  as  that  of 
the  city  of  Salamanca,  surrounded  by  porticoes,  where 
are  daily  assembled  more  than  60,000  souls  engaged  in 
buying  and  selling,  and  where  are  found  all  kinds  of 
merchandise  that  the  world  affords,  embracing  the  neces- 
saries of  life,  as  for  instance,  articles  of  food,  as  well  as 
jewels  of  gold  and  silver,  lead,  brass,  copper,  tin,  precious 
stones,  bones,  shells,  snails  and  feathers.  Every  kind  of 
merchandise  is  sold  in  a  particular  street  or  quarter 
assigned  to  it  exclusively,  and  thus  the  best  order  is  pre- 
served. They  sell  everything  by  number  or  measure,  at 
least  so  far  we  have  not  observed  them  to  sell  anything 
by  weight.  There  is  a  building  in  the  great  square  that 
is  used  as  an  audience  house,  where  ten  or  twelve  persons 
who  are  magistrates,  sit  and  decide  all  controversies  that 
arise  in  the  market,  and  order  delinquents  to  be  punishec1. 
"  This  great  city  contains  a  large  number  of  temples, 
or  houses  for  their  idols,  very  handsome  edifices,  which 
are  situated  in  the  different  districts  and  the  suburbs. 
Among  these  temples  there  is  one  which  far  surpasses 
all  the  rest,  whose  grandeur  of  architectural  details  no 
human  tongue  is  able  to  describe;  for  within  its  precincts, 
surrounded  by  a  lofty  wall,  there  is  room  enough  for  a 
town  of  500  families.  Around  the  interior  of  this  en- 
closure there  are  handsome  edifices  containing  large 
halls  and  corridors,  in  which  the  religious  persons  attached 
to  the  temple  reside.  There  are  full  forty  towers,  which 
are  lofty  and  well  built,  the  largest  of  which  has  fifty 
steps  leading  to  its  main  body,  and  is  higher  than  the 
tower  of  the  principal  church  at  Seville.  The  stone  and 
wood  of  which  they  are  constructed  are  so  well  wrought 
in  every  part  that  nothing  could  be  better  done."  * 

*  Cortes  "Dispatches." 


174  THE    PASSING    OF    SPAIN    AND 

On  reaching  the  city,  with  characteristic  daring,  Cortez 
disposed  his  force  in  such  a  manner  as  to  make  Monte- 
zuma  practically  a  prisoner,  and  thus  a  hostage  for  the 
good  behavior  of  his  Mexican  subjects.  The  super- 
natural awe  in  which  the  Mexicans  held  the  Spaniards, 
added  to  the  fear  of  their  cannon  and  horses,  terrorized 
the  natives  so  that  they  made  no  effort  to  release  their 
monarch.  Thus  Cortez  took  possession  and  governed  in 
the  name  of  the  king  whom  he  held  captive. 

He  remained  here  for  some  months,  when  news 
reached  him  that  a  force  sent  by  the  Cuban  governor  to 
arrest  him  had  reached  the  coast.  Leaving  a  part  of  his 
force  in  Mexico  under  Alvarado,  he  proceeded  by  forced 
marches  to  the  coast,  surprised  the  party  sent  to  arrest 
him,  wounded  and  captured  the  leader,  and  by  his  brilliant 
personal  magnetism,  induced  the  men  to  renounce  their 
allegiance  to  the  Cuban  governor  and  follow  him  in  the 
daring  conquest  he  painted  to  their  eager  imaginations. 

Now  with  over  1,000  soldiers  at  his  command  he 
returned  to  the  relief  of  the  garrison  he  had  left,  to  find 
it  closely  besieged  by  the  Mexicans,  who  had  risen  in 
revolt.  Montezuma  showed  himself  before  his  subjects 
in  an  endeavor  to  pacify  them,  was  struck  by  stones  and 
arrows  and  mortally  wounded.  A  series  of  most  desperate 
battles  took  place.  Castillo  says,  "  I  have  read  of  the 
destruction  of  Jerusalem,  but  I  cannot  conceive  that  the 
mortality  there  exceeded  this  of  Mexico.  The  streets, 
the  squares,  the  houses  and  the  courts  were  covered  with 
dead  bodies.  We  could  not  step  without  treading  on 
them.  The  lake  and  the  canals  were  filled  with  them, 
and  the  stench  was  intolerable.  Cortez  himself  was  for 
some  time  ill  from  the  effects  of  it."  Whichever  way  the 
Spaniards  looked  the  place  seemed  to  be  filled  with  a 
multitude  of  people,  content  to  lose  thousands  of  Mexicans 
if  one  Spanish  life  might  thereby  be  destroyad.  To  re- 
treat was  dangerous ;  to  remain  was  certain  destruction. 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  175 

"The  Melancholy  Night." 

"  At  all  events  it  was  decided  to  abandon  the  city  that 
very  night.  Many  of  the  common  soldiers  had  converted 
their  share  of  the  prize  into  gold  chains,  collars  and 
other  ornaments  which  they  easily  carried  about  their 
persons.  Much  of  the  rich  booty  of  the  principal  cava- 
liers had  been  converted  into  bars  and  wedges  of  solid 
gold.  Cortez  delivered  the  share  belonging  to  the  crown 
to  the  royal  officers,  assigning  one  of  the  strongest  horses 
and  a  guard  of  soldiers.  Much  of  the  treasure  was 
necessarily  abandoned.  The  metal  lay  scattered  in 
shining  heaps  along  the  floor,  exciting  the  cupidity 
of  the  soldiers.  '  Take  what  you  will,'  said  Cortez, 
'better  you  should  have  it  than  these  Mexican  hounds. 
Be  careful  not  to  overload  yourselves;  he  travels 
safest  in  the  dark  night  who  travels  lightest.'  His 
own  followers  took  heed  of  his  counsel,  but  the 
troops  of  Navarez,  pining  for  riches  of  which  they  had 
heard  so  much  and  hitherto  seen  so  little,  showed  no 
such  discretion,  and,  rushing  on  the  treacherous  spoil, 
they  loaded  themselves  with  as  much  of  it  as  they  could 
accommodate  about  their  persons.  A  portable  bridge  had 
been  constructed  to  be  laid  over  the  open  canals  in  the 
causeway.  At  midnight  the  gates  were  thrown  open  and 
the  Spaniards  for  the  last  time  sallied  forth  from  the  walls 
of  the  ancient  fortress.  A  drizzling  rain  which  fell  with- 
out intermission,  added  to  the  obscurity;  steadily  and 
noiselessly  as  possible  the  Spaniards  trailed  their  way 
along  the  great  street  which  so  lately  had  resounded 
with  the  tumult  of  battle.  But  as  they  drew  near  the 
causeway  and  prepared  to  lay  the  portable  bridge 
Indian  sentinels  sounded  the  alarm  and  the  huge  drum 
in  the  deserted  temple  of  the  War-God  sent  forth  those 
solemn  tones  which,  heard  only  in  the  seasons  of 
calamity,  vibrated  through  every  corner  of  the  capital. 
Arrows  and  stones  fell  every  moment  faster  and  more 


176  THE    PASSING    OF    SPAIN    AND 

furious  till  they  thickened  into  a  terrible  tempest.  As 
the  last  of  the  army  crossed  they  endeavored  to  raise  the 
portable  bridge,  but  it  stuck  fast  in  the  sides  of  the  dike. 
The  weight  of  the  men  and  horses  had  lodged  it  so 
firmly  in  the  stones  and  earth  that  it  was  beyond  their 
power  to  dislodge  it.  The  tidings  soon  spread  from  man 
to  man ;  a  cry  of  despair  arose  which  for  a  moment 
drowned  all  noise  of  conflict ;  all  means  of  retreat  were 
cut  off;  order  and  subordination  were  at  an  end ;  intense 
danger  produced  intense  selfishness ;  each  thought  only 
of  his  own  life;  pressing  forward  they  trampled  clown 
the  weak  and  the  wounded,  heedless  whether  it  were 
friend  or  foe ;  the  leading  files,  urged  on  by  the  rear,  were 
crowded  on  the  brink  of  the  gulf  and  dashed  into  the 
water;  some  succeeded  in  swimming  their  horses  across; 
others  failed ;  some  who  reached  the  opposite  bank  were 
overturned  in  the  ascent  and  rolled  headlong  with  their 
steeds  back  into  the  lake.  Above  the  combatants  arose 
a  wild  and  discordant  clamor  in  which  shouts  of  venge- 
ance were  mingled  with  groans  of  agony,  with  invoca- 
tion of  the  saints  and  the  Blessed  Virgin,  and  with  the 
screams  of  the  women,  for  there  were  several  women, 
both  native  and  Spaniards,  who  had  accompanied  the 
Christian  camp.  Those  fared  best,  as  the  General  had 
predicted,  who  traveled  lightest,  and  many  were  the 
unfortunate  wretches  who,  weighted  down  with  the  fatal 
gold  they  loved  so  well,  \vere  buried  with  it  in  the  salt 
floods  of  the  lake.  Cortez  with  his  gallant  comrades, 
Olid,  Morla,  Sandoval,  and  a  few  others,  kept  in  advance. 
The  first  gray  of  the  morning  was  now  coming  over  the 
waters.  It  showed  the  hideous  confusion  of  the  scene 
which  had  been  shrouded  in  the  obscurity  of  night. 
Cortez  and  his  companions  were  compelled  to  plunge 
again  into  the  lake,  though  all  did  not  escape.  Alvarado, 
unhorsed,  stood  on  the  brink  for  a  moment  hesitating 
what  to  do.  He  had  but  a  second  for  thought,  but  de- 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  177 

spair  gave  him  unusual  energy ;  he  was  a  man  of  power- 
ful frame,  and  setting  his  long  lance  firmly  on  the  rocks 
which  strewed  the  bottom  ,of  the  lake,  he  sprang  forward 
with  all  his  might  and  cleared  the  wide  gap  at  a  leap. 
To  this  day  the  name  'Alvarado's  leap,'  given  to  the 
spot,  still  commemorates  an  exploit  which  rivaled  those 
of  the  demi-gods  of  fable.  Cortez  and  his  companions 
now  rode  forward.  A  few  of  the  enemy  hung  on  their 
rear  or  annoyed  them  by  occasional  flights  of  arrows  from 
the  lake.  What  a  spectacle  did  they  present !  Their 
shattered  mail,  their  tattered  garments,  dripping  with  the 
salted  ooze,  showing  through  their  rents  many  a  bruise 
and  ghastly  wound,  their  bright  arms  soiled,  their  proud 
crests  and  banners  gone;  the  baggage,  artillery,  spoil  — 
all.  in  short,  that  constitutes  the  pride  and  panoply  of 
glorious  war  —  forever  lost. 

Cortez  looked  wistfully  at  their  thin  and  disordered 
ranks,  sought  in  vain  for  many  a  familiar  face,  and  missed 
more  than  one  dear  companion  who  had  stood  side  by 
side  with  him  through  all  the  perils  of  the  conquest 
The  sight  was  too  much  for  him,  He  covered  his  face 
with  his  hands  and  the  tears  which  trickled  down  re- 
vealed too  plainly  the  anguish  of  his  soul."  * 

In  a  nearly  famished  condition  Cortez  reached  the 
principal  city  of  one  of  his  allies.  Reinforcements 
reaching  him  from  Vera  Cruz,  he  made  another  attack 
upon  the  city,  which,  after  a  most  obstinate  defense  and 
terrible  slaughter,  was  captured.  The  least  of  the  esti- 
mates places  the  Aztec  loss  at  120,000.  The  spirit  of 
the  people  was  now  broken,  and  Cortez  became  governor 
in  1522. 

Spanish  intrigue  played  its  usual  part,  and  after  a  time 
Cortez  was  recalled,  treated  with  marked  coldness  by 
Charles  V.,  and  died  in  obscurity  and  disgrace.  (1547.) 

*  Prescott's  "  Conquest  of  Mexico." 
12 


178  THE    PASSING    OF    SPAIN. 

The  country  was  subsequently  ruled  by  the  able  Men- 
doza  as  viceroy  until  1550.  Under  his  administration 
colleges  were  founded,  money  coined  and  the  first  print- 
ing press  in  the  new  world  introduced,  from  which  the 
first  book  printed  in  America  was  issued.  (1536.)  Upon 
the  accession  of  Philip  II.  to  the  Spanish  throne,  vice- 
roys of  less  merit  were  appointed,  and  the  condition  of 
all  the  colonies  sensibly  declined.  Notwithstanding  the 
usual  Spanish  incapacity  for  colonial  administration;  the 
natural  resources  of  Mexico  were  so  great  as  to  make  it 
second  only  to  Peru. 

When  Napoleon,  in  1808,  forced  the  Spanish  monarch 
to  abdicate  and  appointed  Joseph  Bonaparte  king  of 
Spain,  the  chain  of  loyalty  binding  Mexico  to  Spain  was 
perceptibly  weakened,  and  under  the  leadership  of  a  few 
daring  spirits,  they  began,  in  1810,  the  struggle  for  free- 
dom. After  an  unsuccessful  struggle  for  ten  years,  the 
leaders  were  either  killed,  captured  or  driven  from  the 
country,  and  in  1820  the  Spanish  authority  appeared 
fully  re-established.  Curiously  enough,  one  of  the 
Royalist  officers,  Iturbide,  to  whose  soldierly  qualities 
the  defeat  of  the  rebels  had  been  in  a  large  measure  due, 
was  destined  to  become  first  ruler  of  the  independent 
state. 

The  Spanish  government  having  refused  to  recognize 
the  treaty  with  the  insurgents  with  which  peace  was 
secured,  Iturbide  placed  himself  at  the  head  of  the  revo- 
lutionists and  May,  1822,  was  declared  emperor.  His 
administration  lasted  less  than  a  year,  and  he  was  over- 
thrown by  the  republican  element  under  the  leadership 
of  Santa  Anna,  later  famous  as  president  of  Mexico 
during  its  war  with  the  United  States.  A  constitution 
modeled  somewhat  after  our  own  was  adopted,  General 
Victoria  made  first  president  of  the  republic  and  the  inde- 
pendence of  the  new  nation  recognized  by  the  United 
States  in  1829. 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  179 

About  this  time  the  presidential  election  resulted  in  a 
civil  war,  and  Santa  Anna  became  the  controlling  spirit 
of  the  nation.  The  history  of  Mexico  for  the  next 
dozen  years  is  but  a  recital  of  insurrections  fomented  by 
different  ambitious  leaders. 

Texas,  then  a  Mexican  State,  had  about  23,000  popula- 
tion, 20,000  of  whom  were  made  up  of  colonists  from 
other  nations  and  of  the  colonists,  13,000  belonged  to 
settlements  founded  by  Moses  Austin  and  his  son,  General 
Stephen  F.  Austin.  When  the  republic  of  Mexico,  by 
the  decree  of  September  15,  1829,  began  the  emancipa- 
tion of  all  the  slaves  within  its  boundaries,  the  American 
settlers  refused  to  obey  the  decree.  The  national 
anthorities  were  not  in  a  position  to  enforce  it,  and  the 
Texans  gained  one  point.  Foreseeing  danger,  Mexico 
prohibited  the  further  emigration  of  Americans,  but  this 
was  "  locking  the  stable  after  the  horse  was  stolen,"  for 

O 

the  colony  had  as  a  leader  General  Sam  Houston,  who 
came  there  for  the  express  purpose  of  separating  it  from 
Mexico  and  with  whose  plans  it  is  supposed  Jackson, 
then  President,  was  familiar.  In  1835  Santa  Anna 
attempted  to  reduce  his  rebellious  State  to  order,  and 
collisions  of  armed  forces  took  place,  in  which  the  Ameri- 
cans usually  had  the  advantage.  On  March  2,  1836,  a 
committee  of  sixty  Texans,  two  of  whom  were  of  Mexican 
nationality,  signed  a  formal  declaration  of  independence, 
and  under  the  leadership  of  Houston  won  their  decisive 
victory  at  San  Jacinto,  April  21,  1836,  made  a  prisoner 
of  Santa  Anna  himself,  who,  under  compulsion,  acknowl- 
edged their  independence  and  promised  that  the  Mexican 
Congress  should  ratify  it ;  but  this  Congress  refused  to  do. 

The  Texans  elected  General  Houston  their  first  presi- 
dent and  the  United  States  recognized  their  independ- 
ence in  1837,  which  Texas  maintained  until  1845,  when 
it  was  annexed  to  the  United  States. 

The  boundaries  between  Texas  and  Mexico  had  never 


l8o  THE    PASSING    OF    SPAIN    AND 

been  definitely  settled, and  the  United  States  espousing 
the  Texan  claims  it  necessarily  brought  on  war  with 
Mexico.  The  war  closed  in  1848,  the  United  States1 
gaining  thereby  all  the  territory  from  California  to  Texas 
inclusive,  though  it  is  needless  to  say  that  Spain,  France 
and  England  looked  upon  the  transaction  with  ill-con- 
cealed displeasure. 

Another  period  of  history  made  up  by  a  recital  of  in- 
surrections, brings  us  to  1861  and  the  administration  of 
Juarez,  who  was  now  President  as  the  result  of  a  revolution, 
during  the  progress  of  which  Mexican  debts  to  foreign 
nations  had  been  repudiated.  Spain,  France  and  England 
seized  this  opportunity,  while  the  United  States  were 
engaged  with  domestic  trouble,  to  put  forth  their  claims 
for  losses  sustained  by  their  subjects  in  Mexico.  Spain 
landed  troops  in  October  of  '61  and  France  and  England 
in  January  of  '62.  The  Spanish  and  British  claims  were 
not  serious  and  were  settled  by  negotiation;  their  forces 
were  then  withdrawn.  The  French  army  remained  and 
tacitly  formed  an  alliance  with  the  disaffected  party  of 
Mexico.  They  refused  to  treat  with  President  Juarez 
and  war  was  declared  in  1862.  After  varying  struggles 
Juarez  was  forced  to  flee  and  the  French  established  a 
regency.  A  convention  was  held  under  French  auspices, 
which  by  a  vote  of  250  to  20  decided  upon  a  monarchy 
under  a  Roman  Catholic  Emperor.  The  crown  was 
tendered  Maximilian,  Archduke  of  Austria,  who  accepted 
it  and  arrived  in  Mexico  June  12,  1864.  The  United 
States  had  protested  against  the  action  of  the  French, 
but  was  herself  engaged  in  civil  war.  Juarez,  with  a  few 
adherents,  fled  to  the  Rio  Grande.  After  the  establish- 
ment of  peace  at  home,  Sheridan  was  sent  to  Texas  with 
a  large  army,  and  under  implied  pressure  from  the 
United  States  the  French  soldiers  were  withdrawn. 
They  were  the  support  of  Maximilian,  who  was  soon  de- 
feated, captured  and  shot  June  19,  1867.  Juarez  was 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  l8l 

made  President  and  re-elected  in '71,  the  first  instance  in 
Mexican  history  of  a  President  serving  his  full  term. 

Under  President  Diaz,  Mexico  has  reached  a  fair 
degree  of  prosperity. 

The  Philippine  Islands. 

The  northern  division  of  the  Malay  peninsula,  lying 
between  5°  and  19°  N.  latitude  and  next  to  Cuba,  the 
most  valuable  colonial  possession  of  Spain. 

Authorities  do  not  agree  as  to  the  number  of  them, 
and  they  are  variously  estimated  at  from  1,000  to  1,400. 
The  total  area  is  estimated  at  116,000  square  miles, 
and  the  population  somewhere  from  seven  to  eight  mil- 
lions. Between  four  and  five  hundred  of  the  islands 
are  inhabited. 

The  largest  of  the  islands  are  Luzon,  area  40,000 
square  miles,  and  Mindanao,  12,600  square  miles. 

This  group  is  of  volcanic  origin,  and  has  a  range  of 
highlands  running  through  from  north  to  south,  the 
highest  of  which  is  about  6,000  feet,  and  some  of  the 
peaks  are  still  active  volcanoes. 

The  coast  line  is  much  broken  and  indented  by  the 
mouths  of  several  deep,  navigable  rivers,  affording  good 
harbors.  Earthquakes  are  frequent  and  preclude  tall, 
substantial  buildings.  The  islands  are  also  swept  by 
fierce  tropical  storms  and  are  within  the  belt  of  the 
monsoons. 

The  wild  animals  indigenous  to  the  islands  are  the 
antelope,  fox,  wild  cat,  monkey,  and  in  the  rivers  is  found 
the  cayman,  a  species  of  alligator. 

The  islands  are  rich  in  natural  resources,  and  among 
the  minerals  are  gold,  copper,  iron,  lead,  mercury, 
sulphur  and  coal. 

The  early  policy  of  Spain  allowed  no  trade  with 
foreigners,  and  the  Spanish  colonies  of  America  were 
allowed  to  send  but  one  ship  a  year. 


1 82  THE    PASSING    OF    SPAIN    AND 

History. 

"The  islands  were  discovered  by  Magellan,  in  1521, 
and  Manila,  the  capital,  was  founded  by  Legaspi  in 
1571,  and  since  that  time  they  have  been  under  the 
dominion  of  Spain.  Their  conquest  and  retention  was 
in  marked  contrast  to  the  usual  Spanish  methods  of 
dealing  with  conquered  people,  methods  of  which  Cortez 
and  Pizarro  are  the  chief  exponents.  Legaspi,  with  six 
Augustinians  and  a  handful  of  soldiers,  accomplished 
the  wonderful  work  of  conquest.  Without  greed  for 
gold  and  without  any  exhibition  of  cruelty  or  persecu- 
tion, these  devoted  men  labored  among  the  docile  people 
until  they  won  their  confidence,  so  that  the  islands  were 
seized  with  little  bloodshed  and  no  massacre  or  depopu- 
lation. The  name  "  Islas  Filipas  "  was  given  by  Legaspi 
in  1567.  Contests  with  frontier  rebellious  tribes,  attacks 
by  pirates,  earthquakes  and  typhoons  serve  to  break  up 
the  monotony  of  an  otherwise  uneventful  history. 

"  Manila  was  captured  by  the  English  under  Draper 
and  Cornish  in  1762,  and  ransomed  for  $5,000,000,  but 
was  restored  in  1764.  The  present  insurrection  in  the 
islands  was  put  down  with  an  iron  hand,  and  many 
atrocities  were  committed,  so  that  it  is  little  wonder  that 
many  of  the  inhabitants  look  upon  the  arrival  of  the 
Americans  as  a  deliverance. 

"  The  Philippine  Islands  are  peculiar  in  having  three 
seasons  —  a  cold,  a  hot  and  a  wet.  The  first  extends 
from  November  to  February  or  March.  The  winds  are 
northerly,  and  woolen  clothing  and  a  fire  are  desirable, 
the  sky  is  clear  and  the  air  bracing,  and  Europeans  in 
this  strange  clime  consider  it  the  pleasantest  time  of  the 
year.  The  hot  season  lasts  from  March  to  June,  and  the 
heat  becomes  oppressive  and  thunder  storms  of  terrific 
violence  are  frequent.  During  July,  August,  September 
and  October,  the  rain  corned  down  in  torrents,  and  large 
tracts  of  the  lower  country  are  flooded. 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  183 

"  The  population  of  the  Philippines  is  7,670,000 ;  the 
capital,  Manila,  having  54,062*  inhabitants.  There  is  a 
small  Spanish  resident  population  and  about  100,000  Chi- 
nese, in  whose  hands  are  the  principal  industries.  The 
native  inhabitants  are  mostly  of  the  Malay  race.  The  gov- 
ernment is  administered  by  a  governor-general  and  a 
captain-general  and  the  forty-three  provinces  are  ruled 
by  governors,  alcades  or  commandants,  according  to 
their  importance  or  position. 

"The  estimated  revenue  of  the  islands  in  1894-95  was 
$13,500,000  and  the  expenditure  $13,200,000.  There  is 
an  export  duty  on  tobacco  and  nearly  every  article  im- 
ported is  taxed.  The  chief  products  are  sugar,  hemp, 
coffee  and  indigo,  and  there  are  large  coal  fields  which 
are  now  being  opened,  so  that  it  is  expected  that  5,000 
tons  of  coal  per  month  may  be  mined.  The  imports  in 
1896  were  about  $12,000,000  and  the  exports  $20,500,- 
ooo.  There  are  70  miles  of  railway  on  the  islands  and 
720  miles  of  telegraph. 

"  Manila  lies  on  the  western  side  of  the  island  of  Luzon 
and  is  about  600  miles  from  Hong-Kong.  It  has  one  of 
the  most  spacious  and  beautiful  harbors  in  the  world. 
The  shores  are  low  and  inland  can  be  seen  the  outline  of 
mountains.  The  city  of  Manila  resembles  a  dilapidated 
fortress  surrounded  by  stone  walls  300  years  old.  There 
is  also  a  wide,  shallow  moat.  The  gates  are  never  closed 
and  it  is  doubtful  if  the  city  could  make  any  defense. 
There  is  also  an  old  fort.  Several  creeks  branch  off 
from  the  landlocked  bay  and  afford  a  means  of  com- 
munication with  the  suburbs.  These  creeks  are  crossed 
by  innumerable  bridges,  and  canoes  thread  their  way 
through  these  narrow  water-ways,  which  somewhat 
resemble  a  tropical  Venice.  Around  the  walls  and  the 
edge  of  the  bay  is  a  fashionable  drive  lined  with  almond 
trees.  It  is  here  that  the  well-to-do  inhabitants  walk, 
drive  and  meet  their  friends.  Qf  nearly  300,000  people 


184  THE    PASSING    OF    SPAIN    AND 

in  the  province  there  are  not  more  than  5,000  Spaniards. 
One  of  the  most  curious  sights  to  the  traveler  who 
comes  from  China  are  the  large  two-wheel  drays  drawn 
by  so-called  water  buffaloes.  They  are  guided  by  a  ring 
through  their  nose  to  which  is  attached  a  cord  leading 
back  to  the  driver,  who  either  mounts  on  his  back  or 
rides  on  the  shafts.  The  weight  of  the  load  is  borne  on 
the  neck  by  means  of  a  yoke.  The  beasts  are  docile  and 
their  chief  delight  seems  to  be  to  wallow  in  the  mud 
and  to  submerge  themselves  so  that  only  the  nose  is  out 
of  the  water.  The  water  buffalo  is  particularly  valuable 
to  the  inhabitants  as  a  beast  of  burden,  as  it  can  dm-  a 
plow  and  can  walk  while  knee  deep  in  the  mud.  The 
milk  of  the  female  is  very  generally  used  instead  of 
cow's  milk,  but  its  meat  is  unfit  for  food. 

"  In  the  two  best  streets  of  Manila  there  are  excellent 
stores  in  which  goods  of  all  kinds  can  be  purchased  at 
moderate  prices,  many  of  the  merchants  being  Chinese. 
The  churches  must  have  been  imposing  buildings  years 
ago  before  they  were  shaken  and  in  some  cases  wrecked 
by  earthquakes.  They  contain  no  works  of  art  of  any 
value.  The  inhabitants  are  very  faithful  to  their  church 
and  the  archbishop  possesses  almost  unlimited  influence 
with  the  inhabitants.  It  has  often  been  said,  if  the 
priests  were  taken  away,  the  natives  would  be  ungovern- 
able. 

"  The  dwelling  houses  in  Manila  are  constructed  with  a 
view  of  shutting  out  the  intense  heat  of  the  summer. 
The  houses  are  rarely  more  than  two  stories  in  height, 
owing  to  the  ravages  of  earthquakes.  Glass  is  of  course 
unknown,  as  the  earthquakes  would  shiver  every  pane. 
There  is  coal  in  abundance  in  the  Philippine  Islands,  as 
already  stated,  and  the  streets  of  Manila  would  undoubt- 
edly be  lighted  with  coal  gas  if  it  were  not  for  the  fact 
that  gas  pipes  would  be  destroyed  in  the  unstable  soil. 
Of  course,  accidents  are  of  frequent  occurrence  with 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  185 

kerosene,  but  as  the  natives  '  houses  are  very  inexpensive, 
their  loss  by  fire  is  easily  made  good. 

"  Strange  to  say,  life  in  the  old  city  does  not  present 
many  points  of  interest  to  the  traveler,  for  the  streets  are 
narrow  and  the  houses  solid  and  gloomy.  It  is  a  marked 
contrast  to  the  business-like  cities  of  South  America. 
The  Spaniards  born  in  the  Iberian  Peninsula  look  down 
upon  those  born  in  the  islands,  so  that  class  distinctions 
are  very  closely  drawn.  This  has  resulted  in  the  failure 
to  make  political  combinations.  Hatred  and  jealousy  of 
the  foreigner  are  carried  to  the  extreme  limits,  the  Chi- 
nese coming  in  for  a  large  share  of  their  disfavor.  The 
theatres  are  poor,  concerts  are  rare  and  there  is  no  library, 
and  their  amusements  are  mostly  limited  to  hearing 
the  band  play,  attending  balls  on  Sundays  and  cockfights. 
The  cockpits  are  licensed  by  the  government,  and  though 
the  betting  is  limited  by  law,  the  citizens  will  not  hold 
to  it.  The  revenues  of  the  islands  are  furnished  by  direct 
taxes  on  every  Indian,  half-breed  and  Chinese,  and  the 
export  and  import  duties  that  have  already  been  referred 
to. 

"  The  dress  of  the  natives  is  exceedingly  picturesque 
and  is  never  adopted  by  the  Spanish.  Cigar  makers  in 
and  around  the  city  of  Manila  number  22,000  and  they 
are  all  girls  and  women  with  the  exception  of  1,500  men. 
They  present  a  picturesque  appearance  with  their  native 
costumes  and  huge  hats  intended  to  protect  them  from 
the  rays  of  the  sun.  They  make  their  cigars  squatting 
on  their  heels  or  sitting  on  bamboo  stools  two  inches 
high.  They  frequently  come  from  considerable  distances, 
going  back  and  forth  in  boats.  Tobacco  always  has  been 
and  probably  will  continue  to  be  the  most  important  prod- 
uct of  the  Philippines ;  and  according  to  the  old  laws, 
the  Indians  were  compelled  to  raise  tobacco  in  certain 
regions  which  were  not  adapted  to  growing  it,  even  to 
the  exclusion  of  other  crops,  but  in  1883  the  laws  were 


1 86  THE    PASSING    OF    Sl'AIN    AND 

repealed,  and  the  result  was  the  securing  of  finer  tobacco 
and  better  cigars,  for  they  are  now  made  at  a  higher  rate. 

"  The  wants  of  the  natives  are  few  and  are  easily  sup- 
plied. They  live  along  the  banks  of  the  rivers  in  huts 
made  of  bamboo  and  cane  thatched  with  palm  leaves. 
Some  of  the  views  in  the  suburbs  of  Manilla  are  enchant- 
ing."* 

"The  Philippine  Islands  have  never  had  the  advantage 
of  a  good  government.  Imports  are  heavily  taxed  and 
Spain  has  derived  an  enormous  income  from  the  islands. 
Insurrections  have  been  frequent,  but  owing  to  the  pov- 
erty of  equipment  of  the  natives  who  engaged  in  them, 
usually  ended  in  quick  failure.  In  1896  the  present 
insurrection  was  inaugurated.  The  military  resources 
of  the  Spanish  were  insufficient  to  suppress  the  revolt, 
and  not  until  the  government  promised  greatly  needed 
reforms  and  amnesty  for  the  insurgents  was  any  progress 
made.  "  The  Spanish  governor-general  announced  that 
the  islands  had  been  'pacified';  and  thereupon  spat 
upon  his  own  promises  and  began  a  system  of  persecution 
against  the  'rebels'  which,  in  cruelty  and  torture,  outdid 
anything  mankind  has  ever  heard  of,  barring  only  the 
Spanish  inquisition.  The  prisoners  were  put  on  the  rack, 
had  their  limbs  lacerated,  and  in  some  instances  had  their 
eyes  put  out,  their  tongues  torn  out  and  their  ears  cut  off. 
Friars,  of  which  the  islands  are  full,  clothed  in  the  garb 
of  religion,  but  disowned  by  the  regular  priests  of  the 
church,  sanctioned  these  horrible  punishments  and  con- 
fiscated the  pitiful  belongings  of  the  victims  for  the  bene- 
fit of  their  monasteries. 

"  That  such  unspeakable  actions  and  breach  of  faith 
were  resented  by  the  people  is  not  strange.  One  upris- 
ing followed  another,  and  finally  the  people  instituted  a 
provisional  revolutionary  government,  under  the  leader- 
ship of  Gen.  Emilio  Aguinaldo,  a  patriotic,  able  and  self- 

*  Scientific  American,  May  7,  1898. 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  187 

sacrificing  native  Malay  of  the  highest  type.  Aguinaldo 
was  twice  betrayed  by  the  Spaniards  with  promises  of 
reform  which  were  never  kept.  He  saw  his  brothers 
butchered  and  his  country  robbed  into  poverty.  Last 
December  Don  Primo  de  Rivera,  the  Spanish  governor 
of  the  islands,  made  peace  with  the  rebel  chieftain  and 
then  sought  to  deprive  him  of  liberty  and  life.  Aguin- 
aldo managed  to  escape,  however,  and  traveled  in  dis- 
guise from  Singapore  to  Hong  Kong,  being  assisted  in 
his  efforts  to  reach  a  neutral  port  by  Spencer  Pratt,  the 
American  consul-general  at  Singapore.  In  Hong  Kong 
he  placed  himself  at  the  disposal  of  Commodore  Dewey 
and  returned  to  the  Philippines  with  him." 

Porto  Rico. 

Porto  Rico  lies  about  1,000  miles  from  Havana,  and  is 
the  fourth  in  size  of  the  West  India  islands.  Its  great- 
est length  from  east  to  west  is  108  miles  and  from  north 
to  south  37  miles,  with  an  area  of  3,550  square  miles. 
A  range  of  mountains  reaching  nearly  4,000  feet  at  the 
highest  point  runs  the  entire  length  of  the  island.  The 
rain-carrying  winds  for  Porto  Rico  come  chiefly  from  the 
north,  and  when  they  strike  the  high  range  of  hills,  or 
mountains,  in  the  interior,  the  greater  part  of  their 
moisture  is  condensed  and  falls  upon  the  northern  slope, 
so  that  water-shed  has  numerous  small  rivers.  The 
greater  part  of  the  island  is  north  of  the  range,  and  well 
watered,  but  south  of  the  range  irrigation  is  necessary. 
The  general  surface  is  made  up  of  rolling  hills  with  rich 
intervening  valleys.  It  furnishes  excellent  pasturage  for 
large  numbers  of  horses  and  cattle,  and  these  constitute 
a  large  part  of  the  wealth  of  the  inhabitants.  Nature 
apparently  set  out  to  make  Porto  Rico  one  of  the  finest 
places  on  earth,  and  but  for  the  interference  of  Spanish 
rule  seemed  in  a  fair  way  to  succeed.  The  island  pre- 
sents a  beautiful  appearance,  and  has  an  excellent  tropi- 


1 88  THE    PASSING    OF    SPAIN    AND 

- 

cal  climate,  said  to  be  the  most  healthful  of  the  Antilles. 
The  climate  may  be  divided  into  two  seasons,  the  wt-t 
and  the  dry.  The  dry  months  are  from  November  to 
April;  the  wet  are  from  May  to  November;  and  from 
July  to  October  it  is  visited  by  frequent  and  severe  tropi- 
cal hurricanes. 

Sugar  was  formerly  the  chief  agricultural  product,  but 
as  the  sugar  industry  became  depressed  the  planters 
turned  to  the  raising  of  bananas  and  the  production  of 
coffee.  There  are  many  coffee  plantations  on  the 
islands,  and  the  soil  and  climate  seem  particularly  well 
adapted  to  that  plant. 

The  rivers  are  small,  and  only  navigable  for  vessels  of 
moderate  tonnage  for  five  or  six  miles  near  their  mouths. 
The  north  coast  is  subject  to  a  particularly  lu-avy  and 
disagreeable  ground  swell,  capable  of  considerable  vio- 
lence. There  are  not  many  safe  harbors.  Guancia  and 
Hovas  on  the  south  coast  and  San  Juan  on  the  north 
are  the  best. 

The  harbor  of  San  Juan  is  one  of  the  finest  in  the 
West  Indies,  and  is  nearly  as  good  as  that  of  Havana. 
It  is  large  and  deep,  but  the  coral  formation  makes  it 
shallow  near  the  shore,  and  suitable  wharves  for  the 
largest  vessels  have  not  yet  been  built.  In  1895  over 
one  thousand  vessels  entered  San  Juan  harbor. 

The  chief  cities  are  San  Juan,  the  capital,  with  a  popu- 
lation of  28,000  (English  Statesman's  Year  Book  says 
23,414  in  1887),  Ponce,  37,575  ;  San  German,  30,146. 

By  their  last  official  census,  Porto  Rico  contained 
8,113,937  people,  over  300,000  of  whom  were  negroes. 

In  1895  its  exports  amounted  to  $15,799,000,  of  which 
coffee  and  sugar  furnished  about  two-fifths  its  value,  and 
its  imports  to  $17,446,000.  The  total  revenues  for  the 
same  year  were  $5,454,958,  and  the  expenditures  $3,- 
905,667.  ^ 

It  is  fairly  well  represented  in  mineral  products,  gold, 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  189 

copper,  iron,  lead  and  coal  being  found  ;  but  little  atten- 
tion, however,  has  been  given  to  its  mining  resources, 
and  its  industries  are  almost  wholly  agricultural,  the  chief 
of  which  are  sugar,  coffee,  molasses,  rum,  tobacco,  live- 
stock and  timber. 

History. 

Porto  Rico  was  discovered  by  Columbus  in  1493.  The 
Spaniards  took  possession  of  it  in  1509,  and  in  a  few 
years  their  characteristic  method  of  colonization  had 
exterminated  the  entire  native  population,  estimated  to 
have  numbered  700,000. 

The  English,  under  Drake,  captured  and  sacked  the 
capital  in  1595,  and  three  years  later  it  was  visited  with 
like  results  by  the  Duke  of  Cumberland.  Since  then  it 
has  successfully  withstood  the  Dutch  in  1615  and  the 
English  in  1678  and  1797.  In  1820  an  unsuccessful 
attempt  was  made  to  throw  off  the  Spanish  yoke.  Dis- 
content exists  there  to-day,  but  as  Spain  has  there  at 
present  an  army  of  40,000  men,  the  would-be  insurgents 
are  completely  overawed. 

Porto  Rico  was  made  a  province  of  Spain  in  1870,  and 
given  its  premier  and  House  of  Representatives,  but  these 
are  controlled  by  a  native  Spanish  "  ring,"  and  are  in  no 
degree  representative  of  the  people. 

San  Juan  is  surrounded  by  a  wall  of  solid  masonry 
from  50  to  100  feet  high.  It  has  also,  like  Havana,  a 
Morro  Castle  (round  Moorish  tower)  situated  at  a  con- 
siderable elevation  above  the  harbor,  from  which  a  plung- 
ing fire  on  an  attacking  fleet  could  be  delivered.  Until 
a  few  months  ago  the  greater  part  of  the  artillery  in  the 
fortifications  about  the  harbor  pointed  toward  the  land 
as  the  garrison  were  apprehensive  of  an  uprising.  Quite  a 
good  many  Krupp  guns  were  sent  them  some  time  ago 
from  Spain,  but  it  is  doubtful  if  they  are  all  well  mounted 
yet.  The  old  forts  of  masonry  suffered  severely  in  the 


THE    PASSING   OF    SPAIN    AND 

attack  of  Admiral  Sampson,  and  nearly  all  the  heavy 
guns  were  dismounted,  but  if  manned  by  an  energetic 
garrison  a  greater  part  of  the  damages  could  probably  be 
easily  repaired. 

San  Juan  under  present  circumstances  is  not  a  health- 
ful town,  for  it  has  nothing  approaching  modern  drain- 
age, and  if  it  were  not  located  on  a  hillside  would  be 
even  more  sickly  than  it  is. 

Why  Spain  Lost  Her  Colonies. 

Spain  once  had  a  well-recognized  claim  to  possessions 
in  America  whose  aggregate  area  was  nearly  twice  that 
of  all  Europe.  If  she  had  shown  the  wisdom  in  colonial 
administration  that  England  has  displayed  for  the  past 
hundred  years,  she  might  easily  have  dictated  terms  to  all 
the  world. 

Three  words  explain  the  secret  of  her  loss  and  conse- 
sequent downfall:  BIGOTRY!  GREED!  CRUELTY! 

With  a  fatal  short-sightedness  she  drove  from  her 
dominions  the  Moors  and  Jews,  who  were  her  bankers, 
physicians,  scholars,  artisans  and  agriculturists.  The 
Netherlands,  the  only  colony  that  could  have  supplied 
their  loss  for  her,  was  brought  to  the  verge  of  ruin  by 
eighty  years  of  the  most  horrible  war  that  history  records. 

Ignores  Commerce. 

Apparently  wholly  blind  to  the  advantage  of  building 
up  a  trade  with  the  new  world  that  would  have  been 
worth  to  her  many  times  more  than  the  mines  of  gold  and 
silver,  inexhaustible  though  they  seemed,  she  paid  almost 
no  attention  to  their  natural  resources  other  than  gold  and 
silver,  and  to  the  mining  of  these  bent  all  her  energies, 
and  sacrificed  the  lives  of  the  natives  of  every  land  she 
conquered. 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA. 

Cruelty  to  Natives. 

It  is  estimated  that  the  population  of  Cuba  at  the  time 
of  its  discovery  ranged  from  one  to  three  millions. 
Under  Spanish  administration,  in  forty  years  the  entire 
native  population  had  practically  disappeared,  and  their 
places  were  taken  by  negroes.  Las  Casas  says,  "  The 
Indians  of  Havana,  seeing  there  was  no  remedy  left, 
began  to  take  refuge  in  the  deserts  and  mountains,  to 
secure  themselves  if  possible  from  death.  Some  strangled 
themselves  in  despair;  parents  hung  themselves  together 
with  their  children  to  put  the  speedier  end  to  their  misery 
by  death.  I  saw  with  my  own  eyes  about  six  thousand 
children  die  in  the  space  of  three  or  four  months,  their 
parents  being  forced  to  abandon  them,  being  condemned 
to  the  mines."  And  Cuba  was  not  the  exception,  but 
rather  the  rule ;  1 20,000  Mexicans  are  said  to  have 
perished  in  the  capture  of  the  City  of  Mexico  alone,  and 
more  than  half  a  million,  directly  or  indirectly,  in  the 
conquest  of  Cortes.  Her  treatment  of  the  natives  in  the 
lands  she  discovered  was  horrible  in  the  extreme.  "  By 
millions  upon  millions  whole  races  of  nations  were  re- 
morselessly cut  off.  The  Bishop  of  Chiapa  affirms  that 
more  than  fifteen  millions  were  exterminated  in  his  time. 
From  Mexico  and  Peru  a  civilization  that  might  have 
instructed  Europe  was  crushed  out.  Is  it  for  nothing 
that  Spain  has  been  made  a  hideous  skeleton  among 
living  nations,  a  warning  spectacle  to  the  world  ?  Had 
not  her  punishment  overtaken  her,  men  would  surely 
have  said,  '  There  is  no  retribution ;  there  is  no  God.' " 

Colonial  Administration. 

Her  method  of  dealing  with  her  colonies  set  a  premium 
on  theft,  intrigue  and  treachery,  and  the  dagger  of  the 
disappointed  assassin  was  a  constant  menace  to  the 
ambitious  and  successful  leader.  The  natives  were 

*  Draper,  "  Intellectual  Development  of  Europe." 


THE    PASSING    OF    SPAIN    AND 

studiously  debarred  from  any  part  in  the  administration 
of  their  affairs.  The  offices  were  awarded  to  those  who 
could  pay  the  biggest  bribes,  which  they  in  turn  must 
wring  by  extortionate  tax  of  fiendish  cruelty  from  the 
people  over  whom  they  were  placed.  Allowed  no  part  in 
self-government,  what  could  be  expected  of  such  colonies 
when  the  despotic  yoke  was  once  thrown  off? 

"  Wherever  a  popular  government  succeeded  in  estab- 
lishing itself  for  a  few  weeks,  the  first  act  of  the  legisla- 
ture was  invariably  to  vote  to  its  own  members  enormous 
salaries.  Atrocities  at  which  humanity  shudders  were 
committed  by  either  side  which  happened  to  obtain  a 
momentary  ascendancy;  thousands  were  butchered,  not 
in  the  excitement  of  battle,  but  after  fighting  had  ceased. 
The  capture  of  a  town  was  usually  followed  by  an  indis- 
criminate slaughter  of  the  inhabitants.  The  repub- 
lican governments,  as  they  were  called,  set  up  by 
the  liberators,  were  in  reality  military  despotisms,  which, 
instead  of  devoting  themselves  to  the  establishment  of 
something  like  permanent  institutions,  quarreled  with 
their  neighboring  peoples  in  the  same  condition  as  them- 
selves, and  commenced  unprincipled  wars  of  aggression 
before  they  had  themselves  fairly  escaped  from  the 
throes  of  revolution.  Peru  and  Buenos  Ayres  both  com- 
menced a  series  of  such  wars  in  the  first  moments  of 
their  political  existence.  Colombia  was  the  scene  of  a 
dozen  revolutions  and  counter-revolutions,  none  of  which 
resulted  in  keeping  their  officers  in  power  beyond  a  few 
months  at  a  time,  and  at  last  split  up  into  three  inde- 
pendent republics,  which  carried  on  a  furious  internecine 
struggle  amongst  themselves.  Chile,  within  four  years, 
underwent  two  revolutions,  which  were  succeeded  by  a 
prolonged  civil  war.  In  Central  America  a  Republic 
was  declared,  but  a  civil  war  broke  out  within  a  few 
months  of  its  establishment,  in  which  one-half  of  the  pop- 
ulation gave  no  quarter  to  the  other  half.  Every  part  of 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA. 

the  vast  district  which  was  once  under  the  domain  of 
Spain  was  in  the  early  part  of  the  present  century  the 
theatre  of  endless  and  meaningless  petty  wars,  got  up 
usually  by  some  adventurer  who,  having  scraped  together 
a  few  pistols  for  the  purpose  of  bribing  a  handful  of 
mutinous  and  half-starved  soldiers  to  revolt,  rallied  around 
him  a  few  of  the  lowest  rabble  and  set  forth  on  his  own 
account  to  burn,  devastate  and  destroy  the  unhappy  land. 
It  would  be  useless  to  give  any  detailed  account  of  these 
frightful  scenes.  Each  revolution  originated  in  Spanish 
oppression  and  wickedness,  but  when  the  yoke  was 
thrown  off  the  emancipated  people  found  that  they  had 
miscalculated  their  powers,  that  long  misgovernment  had 
banished  public  spirit,  bravery,  constancy,  out  of  the  land, 
and  had  left  them  fit  only  to  remain  in  slavery.  Nothing 
but  such  a  government  could  have  formed  such  a  popu- 
lation, nothing  but  such  a  population  would  have  tole- 
rated such  a  government."  * 

"  History  Studies,"  John  Hopkins  University. 
13 


194  TIIE    PASSING    OF    SPAIN    AND 

CHAPTER  VI. 
CUBA. 

Cuba  lies  almost  at  our  door.  The  cities  of  Havana 
and  Matanzas  in  the  northwestern  portion  are  less  than 
one  hundred  miles  from  the  Florida  Keys,  and  the 
island  in  its  nearest  part  approaches  within  eighty-six 
miles  of  Key  West. 

The  extreme  length  of  the  Island  is  about  760  miles, 
its  width  varies  from  120  miles  in  its  widest  part  in  the 
east  to  about  thirty  miles  at  its  narrowest  part,  from 
Havana  south.  In  shape  Cuba  is  somewhat  like  a  fish, 
with  Santiago  de  Cuba  for  its  right  eye  and  its  tail 
curved  around  in  the  form  of  a  crescent  from  the  Florida 
Keys.  Cuba  lies  south  of  Pennsylvania  and  extends  a 
little  farther  east  and  west  than  that  state  and  is  almost 
as  large,  its  area,  together  with  its  numerous  small  islands 
adjacent,  being  approximately  45,000  square  miles,  or 
about  one-fourth  that  of  all  Spain.  It  is  separated  on 
the  north  from  Florida  proper  by  Florida  Strait,  130 
miles  wide,  on  the  east  from  Haiti  by  the  Windward 
Passage,  forty-eight  miles  wide,  and  on  the  south  from 
Jamaica  by  a  portion  of  the  Caribbean  Sea,  ninety  miles 
wide,  and  on  the  west  from  Yucatan,  Mexico,  by  Yucatan 
Channel,  130  miles  wide.  Nearly  all  of  Cuba  is  north 
of  the  twentieth  parallel  of  north  latitude,  and  Santiago 
de  Cuba  is  nearly  due  south  of  Philadelphia,  and  Havana 
south  of  Cleveland. 

Surface. 

A  chain  of  mountains  extends  throughout  the  whole 
length  of  Cuba.  These  are  highest  in  the  east,  reaching 
a  height  of  about  8,320  feet  in  the  celebrated  "  Blue 
Peak,"  some  fifty  miles  west  of  Santiago  de  Cuba.  In 
the  eastern  portion  of  the  island  there  are  numerous 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  1 95 

smaller  chains  branching  off  from  the  central  range  and 
farther  west  are  isolated  peaks  and  groups.  The  moun- 
tains of  the  province  of  Santiago  seem  to  have  a  subma- 
rine connection  with  the  highlands  of  Jamaica  and  Haiti, 
as  is  evidenced  by  the  simultaneous  occurrence  of  earth- 
quake phenomena.  The  lowland  practically  surrounds 
the  island,  being  in  many  places  a  flat  soft  marsh,  rising 
gradually  towards  the  interior  where  the  great  sugar 
plantations  are  to  be  found,  a  little  higher  succeeded  by 
the  tobacco  belt;  on  the  slopes  of  the  mountains  the 
grazing  and  farming  lands  are  found,  and  above  these 
the  forests.  Tons  of  salt  are  produced  annually  in  the 
salt  marshes  by  the  natural  evaporation  of  the  water. 
The  same  fossil  animals  are  found  that  exist  in  the 
corresponding  formation  in  the  United  States,  and  the 
rock  formation  is  of  the  same  character  and  degree  of 
inclination. 

Rivers  and  Lakes. 

With  the  long  watershed  it  is  impossibe  for  Cuba  to 
have  large  rivers.  Though  not  long,  they  discharge  a 
considerable  amount  of  water,  as  the  rainfall  is  heavy. 

Cuba  has  few  lakes,  and  some  of  them  instead  of  being 
drained  by  rivers,  have  several  rivers  flowing  into  them 
with  no  apparent  outlet.  On  the  northern  coast  of 
Puerto  Principe  is  a  little  bay,  Sabinal,  into  which  the 
river  Maximo  empties.  This  spot  is  of  historical  interest 
because  it  is  supposed  that  here,  October  27,  1492, 
Columbus  landed. 

Climate. 

The  seasons  of  Cuba  are  divided  into  two,  wet  and 
dry.  The  months  of  May,  June,  July,  August  and  Sep- 
tember, comprise  the  first  season.  The  annual  rainfall  is 
about  40  inches,  the  rain  occurring  usually  in  the  after- 
noon. There  are  104  rainy  days  in  the  year,  but  it  is 


196  THE    PASSING    OF    SPAIN    AND 

said  that  there  are  less  than  twenty  days  a  year  on  the 
average  when  it  rains  both  in  the  forenoon  and  afternoon. 

^5 

The  annual  average  temperature  of  Havana  is  about  78°; 
for  the  hottest  month,  August,  the  average  is  about  82°. 
If  it  were  not  for  the  high  humidity,  oftentimes  reaching 
85$  the  heat  would  not  seem  oppressive.  Hurricanes 
are  frequent  and  sometimes  disastrous,  although  in  this 
respect  Cuba  is  better  off  than  most  of  the  West  India 
Islands. 

The  climate  during  the  dry  season  is  delightful.  A 
remarkable  feature  of  the  atmosphere  of  Cuba  is  its 
extreme  clearness.  Objects  can  be  seen  at  a  long  dis- 
tance ;  the  stars  are  especially  distinct ;  sunsets  are 
brilliant,  but  of  very  brief  duration.  Except  in  the 
forests,  the  stars  usually  furnish  sufficient  light  to  enable 
one  to  travel  by  night.  A  tropical  climate  is  found  along 
the  low  coast  line,  while  back  from  the  coast,  as  it 
rises  in  elevation,  the  temperature  more  nearly  resembles 
that  of  the  Southern  States.  Havana  is  said  to  be  an 
excellent  place  for  those  suffering  from  bronchial  or 
pulmonary  troubles,  as  the  extremes  of  temperature  are 
not  great.  Frosts  are  sometimes  felt  in  the  highlands 
of  the  interior. 

The  coast  line  belt  in  general  is  but  little  raised  above 
the  sea,  wet  throughout  the  greater  part  of  the  year  and 
liable  to  the  numerous  floods  and  inundations  character- 
istic of  the  tropics.  It  is  here,  in  connection  with  bad 
sanitary  measures,  that  their  terrible  fevers  find  a  prolific 
culture  bed.  The  interior  is  higher  and  better,  but  only 
about  one-third  of  the  soil  is  cultivated,  and  one-half  of 
the  island  is  still  covered  with  extensive  forests.  The 
tropical  heat,  the  heavy  rainfall  and  the  great  amount  of 
decaying  vegetable  matter  give  rise  to  dangerous  fevers, 
which  make  a  campaign  in  these  jungles  greatly  to  be 
dreaded  by  soldiers  npt  acclimated.  Spain's  losses  in 
this  respect  have  been  frightful. 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  1 97 

Soil. 

The  soil  of  Cuba,  is  in  general,  extremely  fertile,  although 
highly  productive  tracts  may  be  succeeded  by  barren 
ones.  As  frosts  are  unknown  in  Cuba  except  in  the 
highlands,  two  crops  of  rice  and  corn  can  be  grown  in 
one  year.  The  famous  "  red  earth,"  a  soil  rich  in  iron, 
especially  well  fitted  for  the  cultivation  of  sugar  cane 
and  coffee,  is  pretty  generally  distributed. 

Mineral  Products. 

Cuba  has  some  excellent  copper  mines,  the  richest 
about  twelve  miles  from  Santiago,  where  several  grades 
of  the  ore  are  found.  Gold  also  appears  in  some  por- 
tions of  the  island,  and  iron  ore,  from  which  an  excellent 
quality  of  steel  can  be  made,  is  mined  in  the  province  of 
Santiago  de  Cuba.  Many  varieties  of  marble  are  found 
in  the  island,  and  the  marble  of  the  "  Isle  of  Pines  "  is 
especially  remarkable  for  its  fine  quality.  Bituminous 
coal  of  an  excellent  quality  also  appears  in  many  parts 
of  the  island.  Near  the  coast  it  is  "  exceedingly  soft " 
and  in  a  viscous  state.  There  are  1 38  iron  mines ;  two 
mines  near  Santiago  are  operated  by  American  com- 
panies. 

Agricultural  Products. 

The  condition  of  Cuba  has  not  been  such  as  to  bring 
foreign  capital  to  aid  in  the  development  of  its  mining 
resources  and  its  agricultural  products,  the  chief  of  which 
is  sugar,  far  exceed  in  value  those  of  its  mines.  Sugar 
cane  was  early  introduced  into  the  island,  at  least  before 
1600.  In  addition  to  the  losses  due  to  insurrections  the 
sugar  planters  have  had  to  compete  with  beet  sugar. 
In  1879  Cuba  and  Porto  Rico  sent  to  Great  Britain  sugar 
to  the  amount  of  more  than  $6,000,000.  In  1892,  the 
production  had  fallen  in  value  to  $46,000.  Consul-gen- 
eral Williams  said  that  for  the  quarter  ending  March 


198  THE    PASSING    OF    SPAIN    AND 

1896,  the  United  States  secured  96  ,V;'  of  the  sugar 
shipped  from  Cuba.  Tobacco  of  a  world-famous  quality 
is  indigenous  in  Cuba,  the  tobacco  plantations  of  Pinur 
del  Rio  being  especially  famous.  Coffee  is  also  one  of 
the  valuable  productions.  It  was  formerly  chiefly  grown 
in  the  West  Indies  in  the  island  of  Santo  Domingo,  but 
when  the  revolution  occurred  there,  it  gave  a  great 
stimulus  to  the  coffee  plantations  of  Cuba,  large  numbers 
o  the  inhabitants  of  Santo  Domingo  fleeing  to  Cuba 
for  safety  and  establishing  magnificent  coffee  plantations 
there.  The  ravages  of  war  and  the  exactions  of  taxes 
have  almost  wiped  out  the  coffee  industry  in  Cuba. 

All  the  usual  tropical  fruits  are  produced  in  large 
quantities  in  Cuba,  the  pineapple,  plantain,  banana, 
orange  and  fig  grow  abundantly  and  the  lowlands  along 
the  coast  produce  an  excellent  quality  of  sea  island 
cotton.  The  dense  forests  covering  the  highlands  of 
the  interior  are  in  themselves  mines  of  wealth,  cedar, 
granadillo,  ebony  and  mahogany  growing  in  abundance. 
These  woods  are  so  lightly  esteemed  that  it  is  said  mahog- 
any is  often  used  as  ties  for  the  railroad. 

With  a  stable  government  that  would  warrant  the  in- 
duction of  foreign  capital,  the  natural  resources  of  the 
island  are  sure  to  be  enormously  developed  and  the  Cuba 
of  the  future  is  likely  to  excite  our  admiration. 

Coasts. 

The  coast  of  Cuba  is  difficult  and  dangerous  of  navi- 
gation, fringed  as  it  is  by  coral  reefs,  islands  and  shoals. 
More  than  half  of  the  circumference  of  the  island  is  pro- 
tected in  this  way.  Add  to  the  dangers  of  this  formation 
the  tropical  hurricanes  peculiar  to  this  region  and  the 
difficulties  of  a  blockading  fleet  are  at  once  apparent. 
At  different  places  along  the  coast  these  obstructions 
become  well-marked  breakwaters  extending  for  miles, 
one,  the  "  Red  Banks,"  on  the  coast  of  Pinar  del  Rio, 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  199 

another  from  Cardenas  west  of  Matanzas  to  Nuevitas,  the 
seaport  of  Puerto  Principe,  and  on  the  southern  coast 
one  from  Manzanillo  to  Trinidad,  and  yet  another  from 
Cienfuegos  to  almost  the  western  extremity  of  the  island. 

At  the  mouths  of  some  of  the  rivers  are  treacherous, 
shifting  bars.  Two  hundred  years  ago  a  Spanish  fleet 
was  caught  within  such  a  harbor,  a  violent  storm  arose, 
the  bar  shifted  before  the  fleet  could  escape  and  the 
vessels  were  abandoned. 

Between  these  fringes  and  the  coast  proper  are 
numerous  channels  navigable  for  light-draft  vessels  when 
directed  by  skilled  pilots.  It  is  an  ideal  locality  for 
filibustering  and  blockade  running  ventures.  In  general, 
the  coast  fronted  by  these  natural  breakwaters  is  low  and 
marshy,  not  much  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  the 
scejie  of  constant  conflict  between  the  ocean  and  the  land. 
In  time  these  marshes  will  be  reclaimed  and  become  a 
part  of  the  most  productive  region  of  the  island. 

Where  the  shore  is  not  fringed  with  these  obstructions 
to  navigation,  the  coast  is  bold,  rugged,  and  affords 
numerous  fine  harbors.  The  entrance  to  these  harbors 
is  usually  high,  narrow  and  easily  defended.  The  best 
ones  on  the  northern  coast,  beginning  at  the  western  end, 
are  Bahia  Honda,  Cabanas,  Mariel,  Havana,  Matanzas, 
Gibara,  Nipe  and  Baracoa.  On  the  south  are  Cienfuegos, 
Trinidad,  Santiago  de  Cuba  and  Guantanamo. 

Isle  of  Pines. 

The  largest  island  adjacent  to  the  Cuban  coast,  almost 
directly  south  of  Havana,  with  an  area  of  about  800 
square  miles  and  a  population  of  2,000.  It  was  originally 
used  as  a  penal  colony.  The  island  has  some  rich 
mineral  resources ;  beautiful  marble  in  numerous  varieties 
is  produced  there  and  the  forests  contain  a  wealth  of 
mahogany,  cedar,  pine  and  other  woods.  Among  its 
minerals  are  iron,  silver  and  mercury. 


2OO  THE    PASSING    OF    SPAIN    AND 

The  village  of  Santa  Fe,  in  the  interior  of  the  island, 
might  easily  become  a  famous  health  resort  on  account 
of  its  wonderful  hot  springs.  Its  principal  town,  Nueva 
Gerona,  has  about  1,000  inhabitants  and  is  some  seventy 
miles  from  Bacabano  on  the  southern  coast  of  Cuba,  the 
latter  communicating  by  rail  with  Havana,  and  for  a  time 
blockade  runners  transacted  a  brisk  business  between 
these  ports. 

Provinces. 

Cuba  is  divided  into  six  provinces,  each  with  a  capital 
city  of  the  same  name  as  the  province. 

Pinar  del  Rio  (pee'-nar-del-ree-o.) 

Pinar  del  Rio  is  in  the  westernmost  end  of  the  island 
and  extends  to  within  1 5  or  20  miles  of  the  city  of  Havana. 
Its  total  population  is  about  2 31, coo,  and  its  capital  city 
is  Pinar  del  Rio,  with  a  population  of  5,500.  It  is  con- 
nected with  Havana  by  railroad.  Pinar  del  Rio  is  divided 
into  four  districts,  Guanjay,  population  about  60,000 ; 
Guane,  population  about  56,000;  Pinar  del  Rio,  about 
70,000 ;  and  San  Cristobal,  about  45,000.  Its  northern 
coast  is  broken  and  mountainous  and  watered  by  numer- 
ous small  rivers.  In  the  south  the  slope  is  more  gradual 
and  the  soil  fertile  until  it  approaches  the  marshy  portion 
along  the  coast.  It  is  on  the  southern  slope  that  the 
tobacco  fields  are  situated  that  have  made  this  province 
famous.  The  crop  is  so  highly  esteemed  that  it  is  bought 
up  in  advance  by  speculators  and  always  commands  fancy 
prices.  This  province  also  produces  sugar,  coffee,  rice, 
corn,  cotton  and  tropical  fruits,  although  these  are  not  so 
important  as  its  tobacco  crop.  Some  copper  is  also 
mined  here. 

Havana  (Ha-ba'-na.) 

Havana,  the  second  province,  is  about  65  miles  in 
extreme  length  and  30  in  its  narrowest  part.  Its  total 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  2OI 

population  is  about  375,443,  and  its  capital  city  is  Havana 
with  a  population  of  200,000.  Havana  is  divided  into 
six  districts,  Bejucal,  population  43,709;  Guanaba- 
coa,  32,344;  Guines,  45>577;  Havana,  213,500;  Maria- 
nao,  7,352  ;  San  Antonio  de  los  Barros,  32,961.  It  is  the 
chief  manufacturing  province  of  the  island,  is  rich  in  the 
usual  agricultural  products  of  tropical  regions,  and  some 
bituminous  coal  is  mined  here. 

Matanzas. 

Matanzas,  the  third  province,  is  about  90  miles  in  its 
extreme  length  and  65  miles  in  width.  Its  total  popula- 
tion is  about  253,408,  and  the  capital  city  is  Matanzas 
with  a  population  of  about  50,000.  Matanzas  is  divided 
into  four  districts,  Alphonso  XII.,  population  33,887  ;  Car- 
denas, 53,882  ;  Colon,  79,390;  and  Matanzas,  86,249.  No 
province  is  better  worked  or  more  thoroughly  developed. 
It  is  the  center  of  the  sugar  production  and  the  other 
agricultural  products  are  important;  an  excellent  quality 
of  peat  is  produced  and  mines  of  copper  and  coal  are 
worked. 

Santa  Clara  (San-ta  Klara.) 

Santa  Clara  was  once  called  Las  Cinco  Vilas  (Five 
Towns),  because  Diego  Velazquez,  the  lieutenant  of  Col- 
umbus, laid  the  foundation  of  five  towns  within  its  boun- 
daries. It  is  about  200  miles  in  extreme  length  and  80 
miles  in  width.  Its  total  population  is  about  166,671, 
and  the  capital  city  is  Santa  Clara  with  a  population  of 
34,635.  Santa  Clara  is  divided  into  three  districts,  Cien- 
fuegos,  population  72,187;  Juan  de  los  Remedios,  15,358  ; 
Sagua  la  Granda,  79,126.  It  was  one  of  the  first  settled 
parts  of  the  island  and  is  probably  the  richest.  It  pro- 
duces all  the  products  of  the  tropical  regions,  and  in  addi- 
tion, some  of  the  temperate  zone  grown  on  the  sides  of 
the  gradual  rising  slopes  of  its  mountains.  Its  mineral 


2O2  THE    PASSING    OF    SPAIN    AND 

wealth  is  not  to  be  despised,  producing  as  it  does,  gold, 
silver,  copper  and  asphalt. 

Puerto  Principe  (pwer-to  Pren'-se-pay.) 

Puerto  Principe,  the  fifth  province,  is  about  150  miles 
in  extreme  length  and  75  miles  wide.  Its  total  popula- 
tion is  124,077,  and  the  capital  city  is  Puerto  Principe 
with  a  population  of  40,679.  This  province  is  divided 
into  two  districts,  Moron,  population  57,620;  Puerto 
Principe,  66,467.  Puerto  Principe  is  the  wildest  and  least 
cultivated  part  of  the  island.  The  greater  part  of  it  is 
still  covered  by  dense  forests,  affording  with  its  broken 
surface  excellent  hiding  places  for  those  engaged  in  guer- 
rilla warfare,  and  it  has  been  the  scene  of  numerous  incip- 
ient insurrections.  It  is  within  this  province  that  the 
insurgents  fixed  their  provisional  capital. 

Santiago  de  Cuba  (San-te-a-go  day  Koo-ba.) 

Santiago  de  Cuba,  the  sixth  province,  is  nearly  250 
miles  in  extreme  length  from  Cape  Maysi  to  Cape  Cruz, 
and  from  Cape  Cruz  to  the  northernmost  part  of  the 
province  about  120  miles.  Its  total  population  is  about 
195,336  and  the  capital  city  is  Santiago  de  Cuba,  with  a 
population  of  45,000.  This  province  is  divided  into  five 
districts,  Baracoa,  18,057;  Guantanamo,  30,044;  Holguin, 
58,900;  Manzanillo,  25,735  ;  Santiago  de  Cuba,  62,600. 
The  Cauto  (Kow-to)  river,  of  the  province  of  Santiago, 
is  ninety  miles  in  length  and  the  longest  river  in  Cuba. 
Santiago  de  Cuba  is  the  oldest  settled  province  of  the 
island  and  is  one  of  the  richest.  It  produces  everything 
in  the  way  of  agricultural  products  that  the  others  pro- 
duce and  is  much  richer  in  its  mineral  wealth,  number- 
ing among  its  mining  products,  gold,  the  best  copper 
mines  of  the  island,  iron,  manganese,  mercury,  zinc, 
marble,  alabaster,  asphalt. 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  203 

The  Principal  Cities  and  Towns  of  Cuba. 

Alfonso  XII.,  a  town  of  Matanzas,  thirteen  miles  south 
of  that  city  at  the  juncture  of  the  railroads.  Population, 
about  3,000. 

Alquizar,  a  town  of  Havana,  about  thirty-five  miles 
from  that  town  on  the  line  of  railroad  to  Pinar  del  Rio. 
Population,  about  2,700. 

Alto  Songo,  a  town  of  Santiago  de  Cuba,  twenty-five 
miles  north  of  that  city  on  the  railroad  to  the  mines. 
Population,  about  400. 

Bahia  Honda,  a  town  of  Pinar  del  Rio,  about  sixty 
miles  west  or  Havana.  Population,  1,900.  Has  one  of 
the  best  harbors  on  the  coast,  and  it  was  here  that  the 
Virginius  was  surrendered  to  the  American  navy. 

Baracoa,  a  town  of  the  province  of  Santiago  de  Cuba, 
situated  in  the  eastern  part  and  the  oldest  town  in  Cuba 
(1512).  Population,  5,200.  It  was  once  the  capital  city 
of  the  island,  but  is  now  the  chief  shipping  port  for  the 
fruit  trade.  It  has  no  railroad  communications. 

Batabano,  forty-five  miles  south  of  the  city  of  Havana, 
and  connected  with  the  capital  by  railroad.  Population, 
about  1,900.  It  was  the  scene  of  active  blockade  run- 
ning while  Havana  was  blockaded  by  the  American 
fleet. 

Bayamo,  a  town  of  Santiago  de  Cuba  province,  about 
ninety-four  miles  northwest  from  that  city,  and  between 
it  and  Manzanillo.  It  is  the  terminus  of  one  of  the  short 
lines  of  railroad  running  out  of  Santiago.  Population, 
about  3,634. 

Bejucal,  a  town  of  Havana  province,  twenty-one  miles 
south  of  that  city  on  the  railroad  to  Batabano.  Popula- 
tion, 6,239. 

Cabanas,  fortified  port  on  the  north  eoast  of  Pinar  del 
Rio  about  fifty  miles  west  of  Havana.  It  has  a  fine  bay 
with  a  narrow  entrance,  defended  by  an  old  fort.  Popu- 
lation, about  1,500. 


2O4  THE    PASSING    OF    SPAIN    AND 

Caibarien,  a  port  town  with  a  good  harbor  on  the  north- 
east coast  of  Santa  Clara  province,  east  of  the  capital  and 
connected  by  railroad  with  some  of  the  inland  towns. 
Population  5,300. 

Camerones,  a  town  of  546  inhabitants,  north  of  Cien- 
fucgos,  situated  near  the  railroad. 

Canasi,  a  town  of  Matanzas,  17  miles  from  that  city. 
Population  700. 

Canclelaria,  a  town  of  Pinar  del  Rio,  near  San  Cristo- 
bal. Population  1,200.  A  health  resort  famous  for  its 
mineral  springs  and  excellent  coffee. 

Cardenas,  a  town  of  Matanzas,  30  miles  from  that  city, 
Population  23,680.  It  is  sometimes  called  the  American 
city.  It  has  an  excellent  harbor  and  was  once  a  famous 
resort  for  wreckers  and  pirates.  It  is  the  shipping  point 
of  a  large  sugar  growing  district  and  has  numerous  good 
wharves.  It  was  in  the  engagement  at  the  battle  of  Car- 
denas that  Ensign  Worth  Bagley,  the  first  American 
officer  to  be  killed  in  the  present  war,  lost  his  life. 

Cienfuegos,  a  city  of  Santa  Clara  ;  one  of  the  principal 
cities  of  Cuba.  Population  27,430.  It,  like  Cardenas, 
had  a  number  of  American  merchants.  It  is  connected 
by  railroad  with  Santa  Clara,  the  capital  of  the  province, 
and  the  towns  to  the  west.  It  is  one  of  the  finest,  richest 
and  most  beautiful  cities  of  Cuba. 

Colon,  a  town  in  the  eastern  part  of  Mat;inzas  and  84 
miles  from  that  city.  It  is  the  center  of  the  sugar-pro- 
ducing region.  Population  6,500.  It  is  on  the  railroad. 

Gibara,  on  the  northern  coast  of  Santiago.  It  has  a 
fine  harbor  for  vessels  of  light  draft,  not  over  16  feet, 
and  an  extensive  trade  in  sugar,  coffee,  tobacco,  fruits 
and  lumber.  It  has  no  railroad  communications. 

Guantanamo,  a  town  of  Santiago  on  the  southern  coast, 
less  than  50  miles  from  Santiago  de  Cuba.  Has  a  fine 
harbor.  It  was  here  that  600  marines  were  landed  from 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  205 

the  troop  ship  "  Panther  "  to  begin  the  invasion  of  Cuba 
and  secure  a  base  of  operation  for  the  American  fleet. 

Guines,  atovtn  of  Havana  province,  30  miles  from  that 
city  by  road,  45  by  railroad.  It  is  the  center  of  a  rich 
sugar  district.  Population  7,000. 

Havana,  the  largest  city  of  Cuba  and  the  capital  of  the 
island.  Population  about  200,000.  It  is  the  center  of 
the  manufacturing,  commercial,  and  political  life  of  the 
island.  The  city  itself  lies  on  the  western  side  of  the 
bay,  the  finest  in  the  West  Indies,  and  affording  ample 
anchorage  for  1,000  large  vessels.  The  distance  from 
New  York  to  Havana  is  1,413  miles;  from  New  Orleans 
to  Havana,  475  miles;  from  Key  West  to  Havana,  93 
miles. 

The  city  contains  many  fine  residences  of  the  wealthy, 
the  cultured  and  the  Spanish  officials.  It  is  said  to  have 
one  of  the  finest  opera  houses  in  the  world  and  its  public 
squares  are  famous  for  their  size  and  beauty.  In  normal 
times  it  is  the  scene  of  considerable  commercial  life. 
More  than  3,000  ships  annually  touch  at  its  port.  It  is 
well  fortified  both  at  the  entrance  and  on  either  side  and 
the  city  is  inclosed  by  walls.  The  name  of  nearly  every 
institution  is  either  of  a  religious  or  patriotic  order.  Its 
famous  fortification  El  Morro  (the  Round  Tower)  was 
first  built  in  1 589.  The  twelve  guns  which  defend  it  each 
bear  the  name  of  an  apostle. 

The  principal  defenses  in  the  order  of  their  import- 
ance are  Principe,  Cabana,  San  Diego,  Morro,  Punta, 
Ataras,  Reina,  and  Santa  Clara.  Other  batteries  have 
lately  been  added  of  which  we  have  no  knowledge. 

General  Grant  said  he  thought  Havana  would  not  be 
hard  to  take  if  the  port  was  blockaded  and  an  army  landed 
out  of  range  of  the  fortifications  of  the  city,  but  surround- 
ing it  on  the  land  side.  With  a  strict  blockade,  hunger 
would  become  a  powerful  ally  of  the  attacking  force. 


2O6  THE    PASSING    OF    SPAIN    AND 

Holguin,  a  city  of  Santiago,  south  of  the  port  of  Gibara, 
and  with  a  population  of  34,767. 

Juan  de  los  Remedios,  a  town  of  Santa  Clara  province, 
295  miles  from  Havana.  Population  7,230.  It  was 
founded  in  1545.  It  is  four  miles  from  its  port  Caibarien. 

Manzanillo,  a  town  of  Santiago,  160  miles  from  that 
city.  Population  9,000.  It  has  a  fine  harbor  and  the 
country  immediately  surrounding  it  produces  large 
quantities  of  sugar,  while  on  the  higher  slopes  are  rich 
timber  lands. 

Mariel,  a  town  of  Pinardel  Rio,  34  miles  from  Havana. 
It  has  a  good  harbor.  Population  1,637. 

Matanzas  is  the  capital  of  the  province  of  that  name 
and  the  second  richest  city  of  the  island.  Connected 
with  Havana  by  railroad  74  miles,  by  direct  road  54 
miles.  Population  36,102.  The  harbor  is  deep,  broad, 
and  defended  by  fortifications.  At  its  mouth  a  reef  and 
ledge  of  rocks  extend  across,  leaving  only  a  narrow  chan- 
nel on  each  side.  It  has  good  public  buildings  and  the 
finest  theatre  on  the  island. 

Pinar  del  Rio  capital  of  the  province  of  the  same 
name,  155  miles  from  Havana,  with  which  it  is  connected 
by  railroad.  This  is  the  center  of  the  famous  tobacco 
district.  Population  5,500. 

Puerto  Principe,  capital  of  the  province  of  the  same 
name.  A  town  without  hotels  or  sidewalks,  and  even 
when  compared  with  other  Cuban  cities,  is  100  years  be- 
hind the  times.  It  is  connected  with  its  port,  Nuevitas, 
by  rail.  Population  46,641. 

Sagua  la  Grande,  a  town  of  Santa  Clara,  260  miles 
from  Havana.  Havana,  Santa  Clara  and  Cienfuegos  are 
connected  with  it  by  railroad.  It  has  a  population  of 
14,000  and  is  one  of  the  important  cities  of  the  island. 

Sancti  Spiriti,  a  town  of  Santa  Clara,  situated  in  the 
southeastern  corner  of  that  province,  55  miles  from  the 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  2O/ 

capital,  and  connected  by  a  short  railroad  with  Tunas,  at 
the  mouth  of  the  river  Sasa.  Population  32,608. 

San  Cristobal,  a  town  of  Pinar  del  Rio,  yo-miles  from 
Havana.  Population  3,522. 

San  Fernando  Nuevitas,  45  miles  from  Puerto  Prin- 
cipe, with  which  it  is  connected  by  rail.  It  is  a  modern 
town  in  appearance,  founded  in  1819.  Population  7,000. 

Santa  Clara,  capital  of  the  province  of  the  name,  248 
miles  from  Havana.  Population  35,000.  It  is  the  center 
of  a  rich  mineral  district  and  is  famous  for  the  fine  qual- 
ity of  asphalt  which  is  the  particular  trade  of  its  port. 
Gold,  plumbago,  and  copper  are  among  the  minerals 
produced.  It  is  connected  by  rail  with  Cienfuegos, 
Colon,  Cardenas,  Matanzas  and  Havana. 

Santiago  de  Cuba  (usually  called  Cuba,  in  the  island), 
one  of  the  oldest  towns  in  Cuba  and  for  a  time  the  capital, 
was  founded  by  Diego  Valasquez  on  his  first  voyage, 
1515.  It  was  th*e  headquarters  of  Hernando  De  Soto 
when  he  was  commander  of  the  island.  It  was  captured 
by  the  French  in  1553  and  at  various  times  was  almost 
wiped  out  by  the  buccaneers.  It  has  been  a  frequent  and 
severe  sufferer  from  earthquakes.  In  1608  the  cathe- 
dral was  ruined  by  one  and  in  1776  many  people  were 
killed  and  buildings  destroyed  by  another.  It  is  the 
second  town  in  commercial  importance  in  the  island. 
The  city  is  situated  on  a  bay  four  miles  in  length,  the 
entrance  to  which  is  high,  narrow  and  well  defended  by 
the  batteries  Morro,  Aquadores,  Estrella  and  Cabanas. 
It  is  a  famous  old  town  with  streets  regularly  laid  out  and 
the  houses  generally  of  stone  and  well  built.  It  would  be 
capable  of  making  a  stubborn  defense  were  its  inhab- 
itants as  spirited  as  those  of  Saragossa.  The  Virginius 
was  taken  into  Santiago  de  Cuba  and  here  53  of  her 
passengers  were  shot,  November,  1873.  Shut  in  by  the 
highlands,  the  city  is  low,  unhealthful  and  a  frequent 
abode  of  the  dreaded  yellow  fever.  Population  71,307. 


2O8  THE    PASSING    OF    SPAIN    AND 

The  distance  from  Santiago  to  Kingston,  Jamaica,  is  200 
miles;  from  Santiago  to  Greytown  (entrance  to  Nicara- 
gua canal),  700  miles. 

Railroads. 

There  are  ten  railroad  companies  in  Cuba  and  the  total 
mileage  under  their  control  is  about  1,000  miles.  The 
most  of  this  is  in  the  western  part  of  the  island  and  com- 
municating with  Havana.  Cienfuegos  and  Santa  Clara 
are  the  farthest  eastern  towns  with  which  Havana  has 
railroad  communications.  A  short  railroad  connects 
Puerto  Principe  with  a  seaport  town  of  the  province, 
Nuevitas.  There  are  short  roads  of  a  few  miles  only, 
running  from  Santiago  de  Cuba  and  Guantanamo,  but 
these  two  towns,  although  rather  less  than  fifty  miles  apart 
in  a  direct  line,  are  not  connected  by  rail.  All  the  larger 
sugar  plantations  have  private  roads  connecting  them  with 
the  main  line. 

Wagon  Roads. 

The  wagon  roads  of  Cuba  are  not  any  too  good  at  the 
best  and  during  the  wet  season  are  almost  impassable. 
General  Stone,  Director  of  the  Road  Inquiry  Bureau  of 
the  Department  of  Agriculture,  goes  to  Cuba  with  the 
invading  army  equipped  with  a  complete  outfit  of  road 
making  machinery,  the  first  time  we  think  in  the  history 
of  military  affairs  when  an  invading  army  has  been  fitted 
out  in  this  way.  During  our  late  civil  war  there  were 
numerous  instances  where  armies  were  compelled  to  wait 
for  the  mud  to  dry,  when  with  good  roads,  decided  prog- 
ress could  have  been  made.  The  ancient  military  rords 
of  the  Romans  show  how  thoroughly  they  understccd 
the  advantage  of  good  communications  between  military 
positions.  The  roads  constructed  by  General  Stone  are 
likely  to  be  not  only  of  immense  benefit  to  the  invading 
army,  but  will  remain  and  become  of  permanent  value  to 
the  people  of  Cuba  when  quiet  is  restored. 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  209 

There  are  four  submarine  cable  companies  connecting 
with  Cuba. 

(i).  The  International  Ocean  Telegraph  Company, 
with  a  line  reaching  from  Havana  to  Florida,  co-operating 
with  the  Western  Union. 

(2).  Cuban  Submarine  Telegraph  Company,  connect- 
ing Havana,  Cienfuegos  and  Santiago. 

(3).  West  India  and  Panama  Company,  connecting 
Havana,  Santiago,  Jamaica,  Porto  Rico,  the  Lesser 
Antilles  and  Panama. 

(4).  French  Cable  Company,  connecting  Havana, 
Santiago,  Jamaica,  Haiti,  Santo  Domingo,  Venezuela  and 
Brazil. 

There  are  only  three  towns  in  Cuba  that  have  cable 
communications,  namely,  Havana,  Cienfuegos  and 
Santiago.* 

Population. 

We  have  seen  that  Cuba  contains  about  45,000  miles, 
inclusive  of  all  the  adjacent  islands,  but  no  small  part  of 
this  is  made  up  of  marshy  lowlands,  barren  keys  and  the 
rugged  and  broken  mountainous  districts.  Probably  not 
more  than  four-fifths  of  it  will  ever  be  thickly  populated. 
Considering  the  really  desirable  area,  Cuba  in  1895  was 
was  about  as  thickly  populated  as  Virginia. 

The  inhabitants  of  Cuba  are  usually  divided  into  five 
classes : 

1.  The  natives  of  Spain,  who  are  called  "  Peninsulars." 

2.  Those  of    Spanish  descent  born   in   Cuba,  called 
'"  Insulars." 

3.  Foreign  white  population. 

4.  Africans  and  their  descendants. 

5.  Asiatics. 

In  1850  it  was  estimated  that  the  negroes,  including 
in  this  class  the  full  bloods,  mulattoes  and  quadroons, 

*  British  consul-general's  report,  1896. 
14 


2IO  THE    PASSING   OF    SPAIN    AND 

numbered  about  50x3,000,  and  constituted  rather  more 
than  50  per  cent  of  the  population,  In  1887,  their  last 
official  census,  the  same  class  numbered  485,187,  and 
constituted  a  fraction  over  30  per  cent  of  the  entire 
population,  showing  both  an  actual  and  relative  decline 
in  numbers  compared  to  the  white  population. 

Slavery  became  extinct  in  Cuba  in  1887.  The  first 
law  for  gradual  emancipation  passed  in  1870,  and  the 
institution  entirely  prohibited  in  1886. 

At  the  breaking  out  of  the  Cuban  insurrection  the 
the  population  of  the  island  was  estimated  at  rather 
more  than  a  million  and  a  half,  of  whom  less  than  500,- 
ooo  belonged  to  the  class  returned  in  the  census  reports 
as  negroes. 

The  third  class,  the  foreign  whites,  constitute  but  a 
small  part  of  the  population  of  Cuba,  probably  not  more 
than  1 1 ,000. 

Of  the  Asiatics,  or  "  coolies,"  imported  by  Spain  from 
the  Philippines,  only  a  guess  can  be  made.  Their 
numbers  are  variously  estimated  at  from  25,000  to 
50,000.  The  coolie  is  bound  to  work  for  his  master  for  a 
certain  length  of  time  at  very  small  pay.  When  his 
period  of  service  has  expired  he  is  almost  helpless.  He 
must  either  .starve,  leave  the  island  or  make  a  new  con- 
tract at  any  terms  his  employer  may  see  fit  to  offer. 

The  Insulars  are  estimated  at  about  1,000,000. 

Government. 

Cuba  is  governed  by  a  Captain-General,  assisted  by  a 
Council  of  Administration.  Members  of  the  Council 
are  nominated  by  the  Crown. 

In  the  interval  from  the  "  Ten  Years'  War"  up  to  the 
present  one.  Cuba  was  entitled  to  representation  in  the 
Spanish  Cortes.  The  province  of  Havana  sent  three 
and  each  of  the  other  provinces  two  senators  to  the 
Cortes  at  Madrid.  The  archbishopric  of  Santiago  and 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  211 

two  corporations  sent  one  each.  Thirty  deputies  were 
sent  to  the  House  of  Deputies.  The  Peninsulars  held 
all  the  electoral  machinery  in  their  hands  and  the  result 
may  be  easily  guessed.  Even  if  the  Cuban  representa- 
tives had  represented  the  people  in  fact,  they  would  have 
been  but  a  hopeless  minority  in  the  Spanish  Cortes  in 
support  of  any  measure  opposed  to  the  wishes  of  the 
mother  country. 

Of  the  measure  of  autonomy  recently  offered  them 
by  the  Sagasta  Ministry,  General  Fitzhugh  Lee  has 
recently  said  :  "  The  Spaniards  could  easily  control  one 
of  the  legislative  chambers,  and  behind  any  joint  action 
on  the  part  of  both  was  the  veto  of  the  Governor-General, 
whose  appointment  was  made  from  the  throne  at  Madrid. 
Blanco's  Autonomistic  Government  was  doomed  to  fail- 
ure from  its  inception.  The  Spanish  soldiers  and 
officers  scorned  it,  because  they  did  not  desire  Cuban 
rule,  which  such  autonomy,  if  genuine,  would  insure. 
The  Spanish  merchants  and  citizens  were  opposed  to  it. 
because  they,  too,  were  hostile  to  the  Cubans  having 
control  of  the  island,  and  if  the  question  could  be  nar- 
rowed down  to  Cuban  control  or  annexation  to  the 
United  States,  they  were  all  annexationists,  believing 
that  they  could  get  a  better  government,  and  one  that 
would  protect,  in  a  greater  measure,  life  and  property 
under  the  United  States  flag  than  under  the  Cuban  ban- 
ner. The  Cubans  in  arms  would  not  touch  it,  because 
they  were  fighting  for  free  Cuba. 

Electoral  Franchise. 

One  of  the  qualifications  in  voting  for  representatives 
to  the  Cortes  was  the  payment  of  a  direct  tax  of  twenty- 
five  dollars,  equivalent  to  the  tax  on  a  net  income  of 
about  $1,250.  It  is  easy  to  see  that  many  Cubans  would 
be  debarred.  In  fact,  it  is  said  that  in  Spain  twenty-two 
per  cent  of  the  population  are  voters  and  in  Cuba  only 


212  THE    PASSING    OF    SPAIN    AND 

four  per  cent.  The  franchise  in  Cuba  was  extended  to 
the  numerous  army  of  clerks,  inspectors  and  government 
employees  of  all  sorts,  which  easily  enabled  the  "  Penin- 
sulars "  to  control  the  elections. 

Compulsory  Education. 

Compulsory  education  was  established  in  1880.  In 
1892  there  were  843  schools  and  one  university. 

In  May,  1897,  Cuban  notes  were  at  forty  per  cent,  dis- 
count, although 'made  legal  tender  for  their  face  value 
throughout  the  island. 

History. 

On  the  iyth  of  April,  1492,  in  the  city  of  Santa  Fe, 
province  of  Granada,  one  of  the  most  momentous  docu- 
ments in  Spanish  history  was  signed.  It  was  the  agree- 
ment between  Columbus  and  the  rulers  of  Spain,  as  to 
the  reward  he  should  receive  if  successful  on  his  proposed 
voyage  of  discovery,  and  is  of  so  much  interest  that  we 
append  the  chief  points. 

1.  Columbus  should  have  for  himself  during  his  life, 
and  his  heirs  and  successors  forever,  the  office  of  Admiral 
in  all  the  lands  and  continents  which  he  might  discover 
or  acquire  in  the  ocean,  with  the  same  honors  and  pre- 
rogatives then  enjoyed  by  the  High  Admiral  of  Castile, 
the  highest  office  in  the  Spanish  navy. 

2.  He  should  be  viceroy  and  governor-general  over  all 
the  said  lands  and  continents,  with  the  privilege  of  nomi- 
nating three  candidates  for  the  government  of  each  island 
or  province,   one  of  whom  should  be    selected  by  the 
crown. 

3.  After  the  costs  were  deducted  he  should  receive  for 
himself  one-tenth  of  all   the  gold   and   silver,   precious 
stones,    spices   and   all   other  articles  and   merchandise 
whatsoever  found,  bought,  bartered  or  gained  within  his 
admiralty. 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  213 

4.  He,  or  his  lieutenant,  should  be  the  sole  judge  in 
all  causes  and  disputes  arising  out  of  trade  between  these 
countries  and  Spain,  provided  the  High  Admiral  of  Cas- 
tile had  the  same  jurisdiction  in  the  home  district. 

5.  He  might  then,  and  at  all  other  times,  contribute 
one-eighth    toward    fitting  out  vessels  to  sail   to  these 
countries,    and    should    receive    one-eighth   part  of  the 
profits.  * 

Isabella  had  offered  to  pledge  her  jewels  to  raise  the 
amount  necessary  for  this  enterprise,  but  that  sacrifice 
was  uncalled  for.  Both  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  signed 
the  commissions,  but  all  the  crown's  expenses  were  paid 
by  Castile,  Isabella's  separate  kingdom,  and  during  her 
life  few  but  Castilians  had  much  to  do  with  the  new  lands. 
Through  his  friends,  the  Pinzons,  Columbus  furnished 
his  share  of  the  expense  of  the  enterprise,  and  on  Friday, 
August  3,  1492,  with  ninety  men  and  three  little  ships, 
he  sailed  from  Palos,  Spain,  and  began  one  of  the  most 
remarkable  voyages  in  history.  After  a  voyage  full  of 
hopes  and  disappointments,  land  was  at  last  discovered. 
The  signal  came  at  two  o'clock  Friday  morning,  October 
1 2th,  from  Pinzon's  ship  the  Pinta,  and  a  sailor  named 
Rodrio-o  de  Tiana  was  the  first  to  behold  the  new  world. 

O 

Columbus  named  the  island  San  Salvador;  to  the  navi- 
gators of  to-day  it  is  known  as  Cat  Island.  He  continued 
his  cruise  in  the  West  Indies,  and  on  October  28,  1492, 
discovered  Cuba,  touching  the  coast  on  the  north  near 
what  is  now  called  Nuevitas.  He  thought  it  part  of  a 
large  continent,  though  the  Indians  described  it  to  him 
as  an  island,  and  he  accepted  their  opinion  for  a  time, 
but  later  returned  to  his  former  belief,  and  in  his  official 
report  called  it  a  continent.  After  leaving  the  island  of 
Cuba,  Columbus  steered  to  the  eastward,  and  on  the  6th 
of  December,  1492,  the  beautiful  island  of  Haiti  appeared 
before  him.  It  was  here  that  one  of  his  vessels  was 

*  Irving's  "  Life  of  Columbus,"  page  77. 


214  THE    PASSING    OF    SPAIN    AND 

driven  on  a  reef  and  lost.  Pieces  of  the  wreck  were  car- 
ried ashore  and  a  fortress  erected  from  them,  defended  by 
guns  taken  from  the  vessel.  Thirty-nine  of  the  crew 
were  left  behind,  and  in  this  fort,  La  Navidad,  under  com- 
mand of  Diego  de  Arana,  the  first  colony  in  the  new  world 
was  founded. 

On  his  second  voyage  he  determined  to  make  sure  that 
Cuba  was  a  continent,  and  sailed  around  the  eastern  point 
of  Cape  Maysi,  skirted  the  southern  shore,  passed  the  Isle 
of  Pines,  and  came  almost  within  sight  of  the  western 
extremity,  Cape  San  Antonio.  A  few  hours'  farther  sail 
would  have  shown  him  his  mistake,  but  he  was  only  con- 
firmed in  his  first  belief,  and  each  man  and  boy  on  board 
the  ship  took  oath  and  signed  a  remarkable  document, 
saying  he  believed  it  to  be  a  continent.  Washington 
Irving  states  he  saw  this  document  in  his  day. 

Very  little  gold  was  found  in  Cuba  and  that  little  con- 
sisted of  a  few  barbaric  ornaments  worn  by  the  simple 
natives,  which  they  gladly  traded  for  the  most  insignificant 
toys  offered  them  by  the  Spaniards.  Nothing  but  the 
precious  metals  or  jewels  could  satisfy  the  rapacious  greed 
of  the  explorers  and  no  attention  was  paid  to  the  fertile 
soil  and  natural  resources  of  Cuba.  At  Haiti  more  gold 
was  found,  not  only  in  the  ornaments  worn  by  the  natives, 
but  in  the  sands  of  the  rivers  and  rocks  of  the  mountains, 
and  so  that  island  came  to  be  the  first  colonized  by  the 
Spaniards  in  the  new  world. 

Columbus'  lot  was  not  a  happy  one.  He  was  a  foreigner 
with  little  influence  and  surrounded  by  jealous  and 
ambitious  enemies,  who  poisoned  the  minds  of  the  Spanish 
court.  He  was  even  accused  of  planning  to  throw  off 
Spanish  allegiance  and  declare  himself  sovereign  of  the 
lands  he  had  discovered.  The  suspicion  and  jealousy  of 
Ferdinand  were  easily  aroused  and  a  royal  officer,  Boba- 
dilla,  sent  to  Haiti  to  investigate.  Contrary  to  the  express 
provisions  of  the  contract  between  Columbus  and  the 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  215 

Crown,  he  was  deprived  of  his  command,  arrested  with  his 
brothers,  placed  in  irons  and  sent  to  Spain.  Upon  his 
arrival  there  in  this  condition  a  general  wave  of  indig- 
nation swept  over  the  country.  The  queen,  convinced 
that  Columbus  had  been  wronged,  Ferdinand  was  com- 
pelled to  yield  to  her  and  popular  opinion.  He  was 
received  at  court  and  treated  with  honors,  but  his  office 
was  not  restored  to  him,  neither  was  he  returned  to  Haiti. 
He  was  now  about  sixty-five  years  of  age,  broken  in 
health,  and  but  for  the  support  rendered  by  his  able  and 
vigorous  brother,  Bartholomew,  and  the  affection  dis- 
played by  his  younger  son,  Fernando,  would  have  fallen 
an  easy  prey  to  his  jealous  enemies. 

Although  he  besieged  the  Crown  for  weary  months 
and  was  put  off  with  numerous  promises,  his  dignities 
were  never  restored  to  him. 

The  fourth  expedition  for  discovery  was  fitted  out  and 
he  placed  in  command.  He  touched  at  San  Domingo, 
although  he  had  been  ordered  not  to  do  so,  but  was 
refused  admittance  to  the  port.  He  skirted  the  coast  of 
Honduras  and  touched  the  northern  shore  of  South 
America.  Here  he  was  wrecked,  his  health  suffered 
from  privation,  his  men  mutinied,  and  he  returned 
broken  in  spirit.  His  good  friend,  Queen  Isabella,  died. 
Ferdinand  remained  cold  and  suspicious  and  deprived 
him  of  his  just  titles  and  dignity.  He  died  May  20, 
1506,  about  70  years  of  age,  a  poor,  disappointed,  broken- 
hearted, old  man.  He  had  kept  the  chains  he  wore 
home  from  Haiti  and  at  his  request  they  were  buried 
with  him.  Ferdinand's  recognition  of  his  services  con- 
sisted in  writing  his  epitaph,  "To  Castile  and  Leon,  Col- 
umbus gave  a  new  world."  He  made  a  will  in  which  he 
named  his  son  Diego  as  his  heir. 

His  remains  were  deposited  in  the  Convent  of  San 
Francisco  at  Valladolid  in  1506;  they  were  removed  in 
1513  to  the  Convent  of  Las  Cuevas  at  Seville,  only  to  be 


2l6  THE    PASSING   OF    SPAIN    AND 

transferred  again  in  1536  to  San  Domingo  and  from- 
there  borne  in  1 795  to  Cuba,  where  they  found,  together 
with  all  that  is  mortal  of  his  son  Diego,  a  final  resting 
place  in  the  great  cathedral  at  Havana. 

Having  speedily  exhausted  the  mining  resources  of 
Haiti  and  worn  out  the  natives,  Cuba  was  now  invaded 
by  Diego  Valesquez,  the  lieutenant  appoined  by  Colum- 
bus' son,  who  succeeded  to  his  titles.  The  landing  was- 
effected  1511,  and  the  Indians  quickly  subdued,  The 
Spanish  made  their  appearance  in  the  isle  with  the  cus- 
tomary bigotry  and  cruelty.  One  chief  who  had  fled 
from  Spanish  oppression  in  Haiti  offered  some  resist- 
ance, but  was  captured,  and  according  to  a  very  pleasant 
Spanish  custom,  burned  at  the  stake.  When  urged  by 
the  priests  to  repent,  that  he  might  go  to  heaven,  he 
replied  that  he  did  not  wish  to  go  if  there  were  any 
Spaniards  there. 

The  first  settlements  in  Cuba  were  made  in  the  fol- 
lowing order:  Baracoa  (1512),  Bayamo,  Trinidad  (1514), 
Sancti  Spiriti  (1514),  Puerto  Principe  (1514),  Santiago 
de  Cuba  (1515),  Havana  (1515).  It  was  from  Havana 
that  De  Soto  (1538)  set  out  in  search  of  Eldorado  and 
discovered  only  a  great  river  in  which  he  found  a  watery 
grave. 

Santiago  de  Cuba  was  made  the  capital  of  the  island, 
then  colonization  began  in  earnest.  Sugar  cane  was 
now  introduced,  the  natives  completely  subdued  and  por- 
tioned out  as  slaves  among  the  planters,  or  compelled  to 
labor  in  the  mines.  The  treatment  they  received  was 
severe  in  the  extreme,  and  under  their  harsh  task-masters 
they  were  worn  out  to  satisfy  Spanish  greed,  or  destroyed 
themselves  in  their  despair.  In  1553,  less  than  half  a 
century  of  Spanish  rule,  the  whole  native  population, 
estimated  at  3,000,000  souls,  had  been  ruthlessly  swept 
away  and  negroes  were  imported  in  their  stead.  Can  a 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  21 7 

nation   constantly  practice   such   inhuman    cruelty  and 
prosper  ? 

The  Spaniards  did  not  escape  unscathed.  Ignorant 
and  neglectful  of  proper  sanitary  measures  they  were 
swept  off  in  great  numbers  by  dreadful  fevers.  The 
mild,  peaceful  natives  found  by  the  Spaniards  were  soon 
worn  out  by  work  to  which  they  were  not  used,  and  the 
planters  were  compelled  to  drop  the  cultivation  of  sugar 
cane  and  take  up  the  raising  of  cattle,  which  required 
less  help.  After  a  time  negro  slaves  were  introduced  to 
take  the  place  of  the  native  Cubans  and  the  cultivation 
of  sugar  cane,  and  with  it  tobacco,  was  taken  up  and 
these  have  ever  since  been  Cuba's  staple  products. 

The  tobacco  trade  was  made  a  monopoly  by  the  govern- 
ment, and  in  1 71 7  a  revolt  broke  out  occasioned  by  its  ob- 
noxious regulations.  The  insurrection  was  quickly  sub- 
dued only  to  burst  forth  again  in  1723,  occasioned  by  an 
oppressive  government's  exactions.  This  rebellion  was 
stamped  out  with  much  severity  and  the  leaders  hanged. 
From  1 700  to  1 750  shipbuilding  was  the  leading  industry 
in  Havana,  but  the  ship  builders  of  Spain  having  offered 
a  protest,  such  exactions  were  put  upon  the  business  that 
it  was  impossible  for  it  to  continue  for  any  length  of 
time,  and  it  is  doubtful  if  half  a  dozen  ships  have  been 
built  in  Cuba  during  the  present  century. 

The  inhabitants  lived  in  constant  terror  of  the  English, 
French  and  Dutch  privateers,  but  a  more  terrible  foe  yet 
was  found  in  the  buccaneers,  a  combination  of  sailor, 
hunter,  privateersman  and  adventurer.  Along  the  coast 
of  Santo  Domingo  were  a  few  isolated  settlements,  whose 
inhabitants  were  by  law  permitted  to  trade  only  with 
Spain  and  in  whose  markets  they  were  compelled  to  pay 
an  exorbitant  price.  They  welcomed  the  hardy  smug- 
glers, who,  excited  by  their  great  gains,  touched  at  their 
coasts  and  carried  on  an  illicit  trade,  and  from  these  the 
buccaneers  were  descended. 


2l8  THE    PASSING    OF    SPAIN    AND 

The  island  produced  numerous  cattle ;  their  flesh,  dried 
and  preserved  by  fire  and  smoke,  was  termed  u  boucan." 
From  this  the  name  buccaneer  came.  Soon  the  island  of 
Hispaniola  (Haiti)  became  the  recognized  haunt  of  these 
adventurers.  Everything  Spanish  excited  their  animosity. 
They  were  fierce  fighters,  utterly  fearless,  and  were  tacitly 
encouraged  by  the  other  nations  who  were  covetous  of 
Spain's  territorial  possessions.  The  most  famous  of  these 
was  Henry  Morgan,  a  Welsh  buccaneer,  who  afterward 
returned  to  England  and  was  knighted  by  King  Charles 
of  England  and  made  Deputy-Governor  of  Jamaica. 
They  differed  from  pirates  in  that  they  did  not  prey  upon 
mankind  in  general,  but  almost  exclusively  upon  the 
Spaniards.  Their  success  brought  other  adventurous 
spirits  to  their  aid  and  they  increased  in  numbers  until 
they  constituted  a  strong,  mercenary  navy  at  the  service 
of  any  nation  which  had  a  grievance  against  Spain. 
Afterward  they  fell  because  of  their  vices  and  dissensions 
among  themselves. 

Much  as  Cuba  suffered  at  the  hand  of  the  buccaneers, 
Spain's  many  wars  were  scarcely  less  disastrous  to  her. 
Havana  was  burned  by  a  French  privateer  in  1538,  and 
to  prevent  a  repetition  of  this  De  Soto  erected  the  Castillo 
de  la  Fuerza,  a  portion  of  which  remains  to  this  day. 
These  defenses  were  not  sufficient,  and  in  1554  Havana 
was  again  captured  by  the  French.  After  this  two  other 
famous  fortresses  were  added,  the  Punta  and  the  Morro, 
the  latter  of  which,  standing  to-day,  is  more  than  300 
years  old.  In  spite  of  all  drawbacks,  the  city  gradually 
became  of  some  importance,  and  all  ships  sailing  from 
Mexico  were  by  law  compelled  to  stop  at  Havana  and 
report  to  the  Captain-General.  The  other  colonies,  being 
richer  in  gold  and  silver,  were  in  a  way  a  drain  upon  Cuba, 
whose  fertile  soil  and  wealth  of  forest  were  not  yet  appre- 
ciated. Harsh  laws  further  handicapped  its  growth. 
One  imposed  the  death  penalty  on  all  who  left  the  island; 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  2 19 

another  prohibited  anyone  who  was  not  a  native  of  Castile 
from  trading  with  or  settling  in  Cuba. 

British  Capture  Havana,  1762. 

Toward  the  close  of  the  "  Seven  Years '  War,"  (see 
history  of  Spain)  a  British  fleet  under  Admiral  Pocock 
and  a  land  force  under  Lord  Albemarle  were  sent  to 
attack  Havana.  This  is  of  especial  interest  to  Ameri- 
cans because  in  Lord  Albemarle's  force  were  New  York 
and  Connecticut  troops  under  the  command  of  General 
Phineas  Lyman  and  Colonel  Israel  Putnam.  The 
attacking  forces  appeared  off  Havana,  June  yth,  1762, 
and  a  landing  in  small  boats  was  made  a  little  east  of  the 

^,^ 

city,  near  the  town  of  Guanabacoa.  The  advance  guard 
pressed  forward  vigorously,  and  soon  encountered  some 
light  earthworks  that  had  been  hastily  thrown  up  to 
protect  the  Spanish  outposts.  The  outposts  poured  in 
a  spirited  fire,  but,  characteristic  of  the  Spanish  even 
to-day,  were  unable  to  hit  anybody,  and  were  soon  scurry- 
ing toward  Morro  Castle  as  fast  as  their  legs  could  carry 
them.  The  advance  continued  and  soon  encountered 
some  stronger  earthworks  at  Cojima,  which  brought  them 
to  a  halt.  The  British  ship  "  Dragon  "  then  moved  up 
and  opened  fire  on  the  fort,  and  in  less  than  an  hour 
silenced  its  guns,  and  sent  its  garrison  flying  toward 
Morro  Castle.  Without  stopping  for  rest  the  British 
forces  continued  their  advance,  and  that  night  camped 
two  miles  west  of  Morro  Castle  itself,  which  distance 
rendered  them  safe  from  the  artillery  used  at  that  time. 
To-day  the  Krupp  guns  of  Morro  could  toss  some  em- 
barrassing visitors  into  a  camp  three  times  as  far  away. 
The  following  day  the  town  of  Guanabacoa  was  captured 
and  Cabanas  Heights,  which  are  now  well  fortified  but 
were  then  destitute  of  defense,  were  occupied  and  the 
engineers  began  their  regular  approaches  toward  the 
Spanish  position.  The  workmen  suffered  great  annoy- 


22O  THE    PASSING   OF    SPAIN    AND 

ance  from  mounted  guerrillas,  who  were  continually 
making  dashes  upon  them  from  out  the  country  south, 
and  necessitated  a  close  watch  and  powerful  skirmish 
line  to  protect  the  engineers. 

The  investment  had  progressed  so  well,  that  about  a 
week  after  the  siege  had  begun  Colonel  Carleton  under 
a  flag  of  truce  carried  a  letter  from  Lord  Albemarle  to 
the  governor  demanding  his  surrender  and  naming 
British  terms.  The  Spanish  governor  was  too  proud  to 
allow  Colonel  Carleton  to  present  the  letter  to  him  in 
person,  and  the  English  officer  would  not  send  it  by  any 
other  man,  so  took  it  back  to  camp  with  him.  He 
delivered  it  in  person  the  following  day,  but  no  answer 
was  returned. 

The  besiegers  were  handicapped  greatly  by  continued 
heavy  rains,  only  to  be  followed  by  dry  days  with  intense, 
scorching,  tropical  heat.  Suitable  drinking  water  could 
only  be  obtained  from  the  fleet,  and  the  men  broke  down 
rapidly  under  the  hardships  in  such  climatic  conditions, 
the  death  rate  running  very  high.  Nowadays,  pure 
water  would  be  distilled  by  the  engines  of  our  battle- 
ships and  one  fruitful  source  of  the  dreaded  fever  cut  off. 

In  two  weeks  the  engineers  had  completed  some  of 
their  mortar  batteries,  and  began  to  open  an  effective 
fire  on  Morro  Castle.  The  Spanish  ships  in  the  harbor 
coming  to  the  assistance  of  the  forts  were  given  a  warm 
reception  and  compelled  to  return  to  their  original 
anchorag< .  The  besiegers  pressed  their  work  vigor- 
ously, and  by  July  ist  a  continual  rain  of  shells  was 
falling  on  Morro, 

The  position  becoming  too  warm  for  them,  the  Span- 
iards sent  out  a  forlorn  hope  of  600  men  to  attack  the 
batteries,  but  the  pickets  and  workmen,  without  other 
assistance,  killed,  wounded  and  captured  a  third  of  the 
attacking  party  and  drove  off  the  rest.  It  was  found 
impossible  to  silence  Morro  by  bombardment  alone,  and 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  221 

as  the  siege  progressed  the  Spanish  marksmanship  im- 
proved so  much  that  the  British  ships  were  driven  from 
their  position  and  many  of  the  crew  killed  and  wounded. 
The  engineers  were  again  called  into  requisition,  and  a 
mine  planned  to  be  exploded  under  Morro's  walls.  The 
Spaniards  now  sent  out  a  larger  forlorn  hope,  but  were 
once  more  unsuccessful,  and  the  attacking  party  surren- 
dered. When  some  of  the  British  went  forward  to 
secure  their  prisoners,  they  were  given  a  sample  of 
"  Punic  faith,"  the  Spaniards  rushing  upon  them  with 
knives  and  muskets  with  the  rage  of  wild  beasts. 

The  Mine. 

The  last  of  July  the  engineers  reported  their  mine 
completed.  It  was  carefully  filled,  and  exploded  with 
great  success.  As  an  observer  says,  "  the  air  appearing 
to  be  full  of  Spaniards."  The  commander-in-chief  of 
the  British  force  had  an  attacking  party  in  readiness,  and 
they  pushed  forward  vigorously  to  the  breach.  The 
Spaniards  appeared  paralyzed  by  the  shock,  and  little 
opposition  was  offered^  though  some  of  the  officers  lost 
their  lives  in  a  brave  but  fruitless  endeavor  to  repulse  the 
attacking  party.  One,  Captain  Velasquez,  or  Velosco, 
the  worthy  owner  of  an  illustrious  name,  deserted  by  his 
cowardly  soldiers,  fell  mortally  wounded,  and  breathing 
his  last  requested  to  be  sent  into  the  city  that  he  might 
die  in  Havana.  It  was  granted  him. 

Morro  Captured. 

The  British  were  now  in  possession  of  Morro  Castle 
and  the  surrender  of  the  town  soon  followed.  The 
Spanish  loss  during  the  siege  was  estimated  at  6,000. 
The  British  force  had  not  suffered  so  heavily  in  killed 
and  wounded,  but  their  loss  from  disease  was  something 
frightful.  The  army  alone  lost  4,708  men  by  disease. 
The  Spaniards  surrendered  u  large  warships,  25  mer- 
chantmen and  about  $3,000,000  in  ^old  and  silver. 


222  THE    PASSING    OF    SPAIN    AND 

British  Influence. 

The  English  kept  possession  of  the  island  until  July 
6th,  1763.  They  imported  negro  labor,  began  the  culti- 
vation of  large  tracts  of  wild  land,  shipped  quantities  of 
European  merchandise  to  the  island,  and  gave  a  strong 
impetus  to  trade.  They  made  Havana  a  free  port  and 
opened  it  to  the  commerce  of  the  world,  and  the  Spaniards 
upon  their  return  to  power  found  it  impolitic  to  try  to 
enforce  all  their  former  obnoxious  restrictions  in  the  way 
of  trade  with  other  nations. 

For  a  century  after  this,  Cuba  enjoyed  a  marked  period 
of  prosperity.  To  be  sure,  there  were  little  insurrections, 
but  none  of  them  attained  serious  proportions.  Havana 
once  did  a  thriving  business  in  the  way  of  building  guard 
ships  for  the  treasure  fleets.  More  than  100  such  vessels 
were  launched  from  her  yards,  but  toward  the  close  of  the 
1 8th  century  they  were  compelled  to  give  this  up,  because 
of  the  demands  of  the  Spanish  workmen  that  such  ships 
should  be  built  at  home.  Hardly  a  dozen  ships  have 
since  been  built  in  Cuba. 

Sugar. 

During  this  period  she  had  little  to  sell  but  tobacco 
and  animal  products,  but  about  this  time  sugar  came 
into  general  use  in  the  world;  its  production  increased  in 
Cuba  and  soon  took  front  rank  as  the  most  valuable  prod- 
uct of  the  island.  Its  price  of  over  forty  cents  a  pound, 
equal  to  twice  that  amount  to-day,  shows  that  it  was  not 
universally  used.  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  Great 
Britain  uses  more  than  seventy  times  as  much  sugar  as 
she  did  a  century  ago,  and  that  its  growth  seems  to  have 
kept  pace  with  the  increased  use  of  tea  and  coffee. 

Las  Casas. 

For  a  time  after  the  restoration  of  Cuba  to  the 
Spaniards  the  island  enjoyed  the  ministration  of  able 
and  oftentimes  just  governors.  Las  Casas  became  Cap- 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  223 

tain-General  in  1790,  and  is  to-day  esteemed  as  one  of 
the  best  and  wisest  the  island  ever  had.  He  founded 
the  "  Patriotic  Society,"  which  has  now  become  so  pow- 
erful that  it  is  allowed  to  send  a  delegate  to  the  Spanish 
Cortez.  He  improved  the  roads,  fortifications,  hospitals, 
and  founded  a  lunatic  asylum,  a  remarkable  advance  in 
any  country  at  that  time.  In  June,  1791,  the  island  was 
devastated  by  one  of  the  most  terrible  hurricanes  in  its 
history,  and  the  prompt  relief  that  he  afforded  speaks 
highly  of  his  executive  ability. 

San  Domingo. 

The  French  Revolution  occurring  about  this  time 
gave  an  impulse  to  the  feverish  unrest  in  the  neighbor- 
ing Island  of  San  Domingo,  and  the  terrible  servile  war 
broke  forth.  Thanks  to  Las  Casas'  ability,  the  Island  of 
Cuba  was  preserved  from  any  trouble  of  the  kind,  and  he 
gave  a  safe  harbor  to  many  of  the  refugees  who  were 
forced  to  flee  from  San  Domingo.  It  was  during  his 
time  that  the  remains  of  Columbus  were  transferred  from 
San  Domingo  to  the  cathedral  at  Havana. 

Cuba's  Title. 

When  Napoleon  placed  his  brother  on  the  throne  of 
Spain  in  1808  Cuba  refused  to  recognize  Joseph  as  king, 
and  by  its  loyalty  won  for  itself  the  title  of  "The  Ever- 
Faithful  Isle."  The  colonial  government  declared  war 
against  Napoleon  and  proclaimed  Ferdinand  VII.  king. 
For  'a  time  the  island  was  reduced  to  such  straits  that 
they  seriously  considered  throwing  open  the  ports  to  all 
nations  to  admit  supplies,  and  inviting  the  French  to 
take  possession.  A  disturbance  at  once  arose  and  con- 
siderable property  was  destroyed,  but  quiet  was  restored 
with  the  loss  of  a  few  lives. 


224  THE    PASSING    OF    SPAIN    AND 

Negro  Plot. 

A  negro  conspiracy  was  begun  in  1812  and  excited 
profound  alarm  for  a  time,  but  it  was  put  down  with  un- 
sparing severity,  and  the  leader,  Aponte,  and  his  confed- 
erates summarily  executed. 

In  1810  another  terrible  hurricane  visited  the  island, 
did  great  damage  to  the  City  of  Havana,  and  destroyed 
no  less  than  sixty  merchant  vessels  at  anchor  in  this 
h  arbor. 

Influence  of  Spanish-American  Colonies. 

The  success  of  the  Spanish-American  colonies  on  the 
continent  in  obtaining  their  independence  naturally 
aroused  considerable  feeling  in  Cuba.  Secret  societies 
were  formed,  all  having  for  their  object  the  overthrow  of 
Spanish  power,  or  at  least  the  securing  of  a  more  liberal 
form  of  government.  From  this  time  the  lines  were 
sharply  drawn  between  the  Spaniards  or  "  Peninsulars  " 
and  the  Cubans  or  "  Insulars." 

Bolivar. 

Numerous  uprisings  on  the  part  of  the  Cubans  took 
place  from  1820  to  1830,  but  petty  jealousies,  rivalries  and 
imperfect  organization  rendered  their  success  impossible, 
although  at  one  time  it  was  planned  to. invade  the  island 
by  Cuban  refugees  and  their  sympathizers  from  Colom- 
bia and  Mexico  under  the  leadership  of  General  Simon 
Bolivar.  The  plan  was  abandoned,  and  the  island  passed 
under  the  undisputed  control  of  Spain. 

Black  Eagle. 

In  1827  a  secret  society  called  the  "Black  Eagle  "was 
organized  among  the  CulDan  refugees  with  headquarters 
in  Mexico,  and  recruiting  agencies  established  in  Colom- 
bia and  the  United  States.  This  scheme  was  a  failure 
from  the  first,  as  it  encountered  the  opposition  of  the 
slave-holding  element  of  all  the  countries  concerned.  The 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  225 

conspiracy  was  discovered  and  the  leaders  condemned  to 
death,  but  the  Captain-General  refrained  from  inflicting 
the  extreme  penalty. 

Period  of  Conspiracies. 

In  1834  began  what  is  known  as  the  "  Period  of  Con- 
spiracies," and  from  that  time  forward  the  history  of  Cuba 
becomes  a  monotonous  recital  of  unsuccessful  insurrec- 
tions. In  the  revolt  of  1844,  thirteen  hundred  and  forty- 
six  persons  were  convicted.  Upon  seventy-eight  the 
extreme  penalty  was  inflicted.  Of  all  the  convicted  per- 
sons only  fourteen  were  white. 

In  1847,  Narciso  Lopez,  a  native  of  Venezuela,  who 
had  served  with  the  rank  of  major-general  in  the  Spanish 
army,  headed  a  revolutionary  movement,  but  was  unsuc- 
cessful and  compelled  to  flee  to  New  York. 

U.  S.  Offers  to  Buy. 

In  1848,  President  Polk  tried  to  open  negotiations  with 
the  Spanish  government  for  the  sale  of  Cuba  to  the 
United  States  for  the  sum  of  $100,000,000. 

American  Filibusters. 

In  1849,  Lopez,  having  organized  a  filibustering  expe- 
dition, landed  at  Cardenas  with  about  600  men.  He 
found  the  conditions  for  an  uprising  were  not  favorable, 
and  hastily  re-embarked  and  sailed  for  Key  West.  He 
organized  another  expedition,  and,  sailing  from  New 
Orleans,  landed  near  Bahia  Honda  August  12,  1851. 
With  him  was  Col.  Crittenden  from  Kentucky,  the  sec- 
ond in  command,  at  the  head  of  the  American  sympa- 
thizers. Lopez,  with  the  main  body,  pushed  rapidly 
forward  into  the  interior.  Crittenden  was  left  with  about 
50  men  to  cover  the  landing  and  bring  up  supplies. 
While  the  forces  were  thus  divided  they  were  attacked 
by  the  Spaniards,  and  all  of  the  rear  guard  killed  in  action 


226  THE    PASSING    OF    SPAIN    AND 

or  afterwards  shot.  Lopez'  division  was  equally  unsuc- 
cessful. He  was  captured  and  garroted.  The  United 
States  government  soon  after  suppressed  another  expedi- 
tion. 

"Black  Warrior." 

In  1850  the  United  States  was  brought  to  the  verge 
of  war  with  Spain  over  the  "  Black  Warrior  "  case.  The 
"  Black  \Varrior "  was  owned  in  New  York,  and  made 
regular  voyages  between  that  city  and  Mobile.  She  was 
one  of  the  largest  steamers  engaged  in  the  coasting  trade, 
capable  of  carrying  from  200  to  300  passengers,  and 
making  the  round  trip  in  about  a  month.  In  going  and 
returning  she  put  into  Havana  to  discharge  and  receive 
mail  and  passengers,  but  no  freight  was  taken  or  dis- 
charged, nor  was  her  cargo  in  any  way  disturbed.  Accord- 
ing to  the  exacting  custom  regulations  of  the  port,  she 
should  at  each  time  have  exhibited  a  manifest  of  her 
cargo,  but  as  none  was  to  be  moved  she  was  entered  and 
cleared  as  "in  ballast,"  and  had  practiced  this,  without 
question,  for  years.  There  was  nothing  secret  or  myste- 
rious about  this,  and  it  was  with  the  full  knowledge  and 
consent  of  the  revenue  officers,  and,  in  fact,  permitted  by 
a  written  order  issued  by  the  Cuban  authorities  dated 
February  27,  1847.  But  in  1850  considerable  feeling 
existed  between  Spain  and  the  United  States.  On  the 
28th  of  February  the  steamer  was  seized  by  the  revenue 
authorities  upon  the  charge  of  having  on  board  an  unde- 
clared cargo.  The  cargo  was  confiscated  and  a  fine  of 
twice  its  value  levied  against  the  vessel.  Captain  Bullock 
refused  to  pay  the  fine,  and  protested  vigorously  against 
the  whole  proceedings  as  both  unlawful  and  in  bad  faith. 
The  revenue  officers  had  tried  to  trick  him  into  a  techni- 
cal violation  of  the  customs  laws  by  opening  the  hatches 
of  the  ship  and  getting  ready  the  usual  machinery  for 
hoisting  cargo.  The  captain  declared  this  a  forcible 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  22J 

seizure,  took  his  flag  and  such  of  his  papers  as  he  could 
secure,  and  with  his  passengers  left  the  ship.  The  owners 
at  once  appealed  to  the  government  of  the  United  States, 
demanded  protection,  and  made  a  claim  for  damages. 
An  indemnity  of  $300,000  was  paid  them  after  five  years 
of  wrangling. 

The  Quitman  Expedition. 

In  1854  another  filibustering  expedition  under  the 
command  of  General  Quitman,  of  Mississippi,  was 
planned,  and  preparations  again  made  to  invade  Cuba. 
Before  the  expedition  sailed,  however,  the  Cuban  leaders 
were  discovered,  imprisoned,  and  some  of  them  summarily 
executed. 

Spain's  Irritating  Course. 

Following  the  "  Black  Warrior  "  case  were  others  less 
serious,  but  still  very  annoying.  Exorbitant  fines  were 
levied  on  American  vessels  in  Cuban  ports  for  the  most 
trivial  and  purely  technical  offenses.  American  ships 
were  stopped  on  the  high  seas  and  searched  by  Spanish 
cruisers,  and  American  citizens  in  Cuba  arrested  on 
various  charges.  In  addition,  slave-holders  felt  a  feeling 
of  insecurity  over  the  probable  abolition  of  slavery  in 
Cuba.  The  Spanish  colonies  of  America,  on  declaring 
their  independence,  had  abolished  slavery,  and  it  seemed 
likely  that  the  existence  of  that  institution  in  Cuba  was 
doomed. 

Europe  Concerned. 

The  strained  relations  between  Spain  and  the  United 
States,  and  the  very  evident  intention  of  the  dominant 
political  party  of  the  latter  country  to  either  buy  or  seize 
Cuba,  excited  the  apprehension  of  Europe.  England 
and  France  united  in  a  diplomatic  representation  to  the 
United  States,  asking  the  latter  country  to  join  with 


228  THE    PASSING   OF    SPAIN    AND 

them  in  an  agreement  by  which  neither  of  the  signatory 
powers  should  ever  acquire  Cuba  or  permit  any  other 
power  to  do  so.  After  due  consideration  the  United 
States  declined  to  be  a  party  to  this,  urging  for  their 
action  three  reasons: 

First.  The  traditional  reluctance  of  America  to  be- 
come a  party  to  "  entangling  alliances." 

Second.  That  such  action  did  not  provide  for  future 
contingencies  that  might  arise,  and  was  perhaps 
unconstitutional. 

Third.  That  each  of  the  other  parties  were  asking 
greater  concessions  on  our  part  than  they  were  giving, 
as  by  reason  of  its  geographical  position  there  would  be 
strategetical  advantages  for  the  United  States  in  the 
possession  of  Cuba,  not  so  valuable  to  England  or  to 
France. 

Ostend  Manifesto. 

The  anxiety  of  the  South  to  secure  Cuba  before  it 
should  become  a  dangerous  asylum  for  runaway  slaves, 
the  evident  desire  of  Europe  not  to  see  such  a  trans- 
action consummated,  the  strained  relations  with  Spain  im- 
pelled President  Pierce  to  direct  Mr.  Marcy,  secretary  of 
state,  to  instruct  Messrs.  Buchanan,  Mason  and  Soule, 
United  States  ministers  at  the  courts  of  London,  Paris 
and  Madrid,  to  meet  in  some  European  city  and  discuss 
the  question  of  the  acquisition  of  Cuba  by  the  United 
States.  The  ministers  met  at  Ostend,  Belgium,  and  is- 
sued their  famous  manifesto  in  which  they  declared  that 
it  was  the  manifest  duty  of  the  United  States  to  acquire 
Cuba;  that  the  Union  could  never  enjoy  repose  and  se- 
curity "as  long  as  Cuba  is  not  embraced  within  its  boun- 
daries "  for  fear  it  might  "  be  Africanized  and  become  a 
second  San  Domingo,  seriously  endangering  the  Union  ;  " 
that  Spain  wrould  find  it  highly  advantageous  to  her  to 
sell  it;  recommended  the  purchase  of  the  island  for 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  229 

$  1 20,000,000 ;  emphatically  stated  that  in  no  event  should 
any  European  government  be  allowed  to  become  the 
owner  of  the  island.  They  further  declared  that  if 
freedom  were  given  to  the  slaves  in  Cuba  it  would  so 
endanger  the  United  States  as  to  justify  them  in  taking 
forcible  possession.  This  remarkable  paper  excited  the 
amazement  of  all  Europe,  and  greatly  intensified  Spain's 
resentment  against  the  United  States.  It  was  taken  very 
seriously  at  home,  and  indorsed  by  President  Pierce  and 
his  administration.  In  fact,  the  Democratic  national 
conventions  of  1856  and  1860  each  expressed  themselves 
emphatically  "  in  favor  of  the  acquisition  of  Cuba." 

Ten  Years'  War. 

During  the  Civil  War  of  the  United  States,  Cuba  was 
under  the  administration  of  able  and  liberal  governors, 
who  successfully  preserved  the  tranquillity  of  the  island 
in  spite  of  the  disturbing  influences  so  near  at  hand. 
The  close  of  that  war  and  the  emancipation  of  the  slaves, 
seems  to  have  encouraged  the  leaders  of  freedom  in 
Cuba.  They  took  advantage  of  a  Spanish  cabinet  in 
power  at  the  time,  seemingly  more  liberal  than  usual, 
and  asked  that  a  commission  be  appointed  to  examine 
into  Cuban  affairs,  correct  abuses  and  consider  such  vital 
questions  and  give  the  Cubans  a  constitution  in  place  of 
the  Captain-General,  granting  them  the  right  of  petition, 
making  native  Cubans  eligible  to  public  office,  granting 
relief  from  the  exactions  of  some  of  the  industrial 
monopolies  held  by  the  crown,  allowing  representation 
for  the  island  in  the  Spanish  Cortes  and  providing  for 
the  "freedom  of  the  press." 

A  commission  was  appointed,  but  these  important 
subjects  received  little  if  any  consideration.  Only  a  few 
minor  changes  were  made,  and  an  additional  tax  of  ten 
per  cent  was  added  to  the  already  over-burdened  colony. 

The  revolution   in  Spain    that  expelled    Isabella    II, 


230  THE    PASSING   OF    SPAIN    AND 

brought  greater  freedom  to  the  Spaniards,  but  no  relief 
to  the  suffering  Cubans. 

Hostilities  Begin. 

Plans  for  an  insurrection  had  been  considered  for 
some  time,  and  were  not  matured.  Under  the  leader- 
ship of  a  few  brave  and  daring  men  at  various  points  in 
the  different  provinces,  the  discontented  rallied  and  pre- 
pared to  take  up  arms.  On  October  10,  1868,  Carlos  N. 
de  Cespedes,  a  lawyer  of  Bayamo,  at  the  head  of  one 
hundred  and  twenty  eight  poorly  armed  men  issued  the 
famous  Declaration  of  Independence  of  Yara.  "  Spain 
has  many  times  promised  us  Cubans  to  respect  our 
rights,  without  further  having  fulfilled  her  promises  ;  she 
continues  to  tax  us  heavily,  and  by  so  doing  is  likely  to 
destroy  our  wealth  ;  as  we  are  in  danger  of  losing  our 
property,  our  lives,  and  we  want  no  further  Spanish  dom- 
ination, etc." 

Within  a  short  time  Cespedes  was  at  the  head  of 
from  10,000  to  15,000  men,  not  more  than  half  of  whom 
were  well  armed,  but  their  enthusiasm  and  energy  went 
far  toward  making  up  for  their  poor  equipment.  They 
repulsed  the  Spanish  troops  sent  against  them,  and  pro- 
ceeded vigorously  against  the  important  towns  of  the 
interior  that  fell  into  their  hands  one  after  another,  as 
the  result  of  a  guerrilla  campaign,  in  which  Manuel 
Quesada  greatly  distinguished  himself. 

Cuban  Successes. 

Had  it  not  been  for  the  Spanish  fleet  the  Cubans 
would  have  captured  even  the  seaport  towns.  Dulce 
was  sent  from  Spain  and  made  Captain-General.  He 
offered  to  consider  the  Cuban  grievances  and  grant  a 
general  amnesty,  but  his  offers  were  indignantly  refused 
by  the  Cubans,  while  their  proffer  irritated  the  "vol- 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  23! 

unteers"    and    rendered    him    unpopular   with  his  own 
party. 

Cuban  Provisional  Government. 

Cuban  delegates  met  in  convention  April,  1869,  elected 
Cespedes  President,  Manuel  Quesada  General-in-Chief, 
and  framed  a  constitution.  There  were  volunteers 
enough,  brave  and  enthusiastic,  but  then,  as  now,  the 
lack  of  Cuba  was  small  arms,  ammunition,  provisions 
and  medical  supplies.  They  received  some  relief  in  this 
direction  by  the  successful  landing  of  filibustering  ex- 
peditions from  the  United  States,  one  under  Raphael 
Quesada  and  another  under  Colonel  Thomas  Jordan, 
who  had  formerly  served  with  honor  in  the  Confederate 
army. 

The  unpopularity  of  the  Captain-General,  the  high 
death  rate  in  the  unacclimated  Spanish  army  incident 
to  a  rainy  season,  had  deterred  the  Spaniards  from 
making  an  active  campaign  against  the  insurgents. 
However,  in  the  fall  of  1870,  at  the  close  of  the  yellow 
fever  season,  which  had  been  so  fatal  to  the  new  troops 
sent  out  from  Spain,  active  operations  were  resumed. 
The  Cubans  had  made  the  most  of  the  delay;  their 
forces  were  in  much  better  condition  and  some  con- 
siderable advantages  were  gained  by  them. 

Havana  "  Volunteers." 

Then,  as  now,  in  Havana  and  vicinity,  a  large  part  of 
the  military  force  of  Spain  was  made  up  of  volunteers 
composed  of  the  "  Peninsulars"  holding  office  under  the 
crown.  These  men  were  never  amenable  to  strict  dis- 
cipline, and  were  a  prolific  source  of  trouble  to  any 
officer  who  excited  their  resentment.  They  resembled, 
in  this  respect,  the  Praetorian  Guards  of  the  early  Roman 
Empire,  paralyzing  the  efforts  of  any  commander  who 
was  unpopular  with  them,  and,  perhaps,  to-morrow  dis- 


232  THE    PASSING   OF    SPAIN    AND 

gracing  the  favorite  of  to-day.  In  June,  1870,  they 
went  so  far  as  to  seize  Captain-General  Dulce  and 
send  him  back  to  Spain,  and  depose  General  Pinto, 
Military  Governor  of  Matanzas.  They  terrorized  the 
whole  country  wherever  they  were  located,  and  were 
so  powerful  that  they  compelled  the  Spanish  authorities 
to  wink  at  their  irregularities.  The  Cubans  had  no  more 
unrelenting  enemy  than  these  "  gentlemen  "  soldiers. 

Summary. 

For  the  first  two  years  the  Cubans  made  considerable 
headway,  and  had  they  been  able  to  reserve  an  open  port 
and  command  a  few  vessels  capable  of  landing  supplies, 
they  might  have  been  successful,  but  by  the  aid  of  her 
navy  Spain  rendered  it  exceedingly  difficult  and  danger- 
ous to  import  the  necessary  war  material,  and  the 
military  resources  of  the  mother  country  were  much 
superior  to  those  of  the  revolting  colonies. 

Cubans  Recognized. 

At  the  height  of  their  success  the  Cubans  were  recog- 
nized as  belligerents  by  Chile,  Bolivia,  Guatemala,  Colom- 
bia and  the  Republic  of  Mexico.  Their  independence 
was  formally  recognized  by  Peru  June  15,  1869. 

Not  content  with  their  natural  difficulties  the  Cubans, 
in  1873,  deposed  their  president,  Cespedes,  quarreled 
vigorously  among  themselves  as  to  his  successor,  alienated 
their  friends,  and  by  this  action  threw  away  their  chance 
of  success. 

Had  Spain  been  in  a  position  to  push  affairs  vigor- 
ously just  at  that  time,  it  would  seem  as  though  the  rebel- 
lion could  have  been  speedily  suppressed,  but  at  this 
period  she  was  occupied  at  home  with  her  Carlist  troubles. 
The  Cubans,  without  a  navy,  were  unable  to  obtain  the 
needed  arms  and  ammunition,  and  the  Spaniards,  by  the 
aid  of  their  fleet,  kept  command  of  the  coast  towns.  The 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  233 

terrible  struggle  thus  dragged  on,  marked  by  heavy  losses 
and  slight  gains  on  either  side,  the  Cubans  slowly  losing 
ground. 

Peace  of  Zanjon. 

In  1876,  General  Martinez  de  Campos,  a  distinguished 
soldier,  arrived  in  Cuba  as  commander-general,  bringing 
with  him  25,000  veterans  of  the  Carlist  wars,  and  pre- 
pared to  push  matters  vigorously.  The  Cubans  avoided 
battle  in  force,  trusted  to  guerrilla  warfare,  and  relied 
upon  the  yellow  fever  to  do  its  terrible  work  upon  the 
new  Spanish  troops;  but  Campos  was  an  abler  leader 
than  they  had  yet  opposed ;  even  his  enemies  confided  in 
his  honor,  and  the  numerous  dissensions  among  them- 
selves had  weakened  the  Cubans  until  many  of  them 
listened  attentively  to  propositions  for  peace.  In  1878 
an  armistice  was  agreed  upon,  and  the  Cuban  leaders 
met  at  Camaguey  to  consider  the  propositions  for  peace 
offered  by  General  Campos.  General  Garcia,  who  had 
succeeded  to  the  presidency  of  the  Cuban  Republic,  was 
appointed  with  nine  others,  and  commissioned  to  confer 
with  the  Spanish  commander.  The  meeting  was  held 
near  Zanjon,  in  the  district  of  Canagua,  and  what  is 
known  as  the  "  Peace  of  Zanjon  "  was  proclaimed  Feb- 
ruary 10,  1878.  By  its  terms  the  Cubans  laid  down  their 
arms,  and  Spain  agreed  to  grant  in  substance  the  reforms 
demanded  by  the  Cuban  commission  of  inquiry  eleven 
years  before. 

Its  Reception  at  Madrid. 

Having  ended  hostilities  and  pacified  Cuba,  Campos 
returned  to  Madrid  and  placed  the  treaty  before  his 
government  for  ratification.  Canovas,  since  assassinated, 
was  at  the  head  of  the  cabinet  and  resigned  his  ministry 
rather  than  lay  before  that  body  the  terms  to  which 
Campos  had  agreed  for  carrying  out  the  reforms  he  prom- 


234  THE    PASSING    OF    SPAIN    AND 

ised  to  Cuba  in  the  name  of  Spain.  The  Cubans  had 
laid  down  their  arms  in  obedience  to  the  most  solemn 
pledges  of  Campos  that  these  reforms  should  be  granted, 
and  upon  the  resignation  of  Canovas  in  March,  1879, 
Campos  dissolved  the  Cortes,  secured  a  majority  in  the 
ensuing  election  and  organized  a  new  cabinet. 

Promises  Ignored. 

However,  his  plans  met  only  with  a  lukewarm  support 
from  his  colleagues  and  lack  of  harmony  prevailed  in 
the  new  cabinet,  Campos  resigning  and  Canovas  again 
returning  to  the  ministry,  while  the  promises  so  solemnly 
made  at  Zanjon  to  the  struggling  Cubans,  were  ignored. 
The  most  marked  result  of  the  Ten  Years '  War  was 
the  abolition  of  slavery  in  1886,  the  institution  becoming 
extinct  in  1887. 

The  Good  Offices  of  the  United  States. 

During  the  progress  of  the  insurrection  the  good 
offices  of  the  United  States  government  were  repeatedly 
offered  for  the  re-establishment  of  peace  in  the  island. 
President  Grant  in  his  messages  of  1869  and  1875  indi- 
cates this,  and  in  1876  he  proposed  a  joint  intervention 
of  the  United  States  and  the  European  powers.  Noth- 
ing came  of  this  project.  The  question  of  recognizing 
the  belligerency  of  the  Cuban  Republic  was  several 
times  before  the  United  States  Congress,  and,  as  we  have 
seen,  several  of  the  South  American  Republics  accorded 
them  belligerent  rights,  and  one  of  them,  Peru,  recog- 
nized their  independence. 

Cost  of  the  Ten  Years'  War. 

Spain's  loss  in  life,  as  shown  by  the  official  reports  in 
the  archives  at  Madrid,  were  for  her  regular  army  alone, 
81,098.  More  died  from  disease  than  from  wounds 
received  in  battle.  In  1877,  with  an  army  supposed  to 
number  90,000  men,  more  than  15,000  were  in  the  hospi- 


THE    ASCENDENCY     OF    AMERICA.  235 

tal.  The  losses  of  the  Cubans  can  never  be  definitely 
settled,  but  it  is  probable  that  from  30,000  to  50,000  died 
of  wounds  and  disease.  Spain  actually  paid  out  in 
money,  $300,000,000  and  fully  as  much  more  was  lost  by 
reason  of  destruction  of  property  in  Cuba. 

Bitterness  of  the  Strife. 

During  this  contest  the  most  intense  bitterness  pre- 
vailed on  both  sides.  No  quarter  was  given,  no  prisoners 
exchanged ;  they  were  all  slaughtered.  The  defeated  of 
either  party  frequently  committed  suicide  rather  than 
fall  alive  into  the  hands  of  their  enemies.  The  awful 
horrors  of  the  "Ten  Years'  War"  have  no  parallel  in 
modern  history. 

Perils  to  the  United  States. 

Then  as  now,  the  United  States  suffered  great  annoy- 
ance and  was  compelled  to  incur  considerable  expense 
in  the  enforcement  of  the  neutrality  laws.  The  people 
of  the  United  States  without  doubt  sympathized  with 
the  Cubans  in  their  struggle  for  freedom  and  it  was  im- 
possible for  the  government  to  prevent  the  successful 
operation  of  some  filibustering  expeditions.  The  most 
famous  of  these  filibusters,  nearly  occasioning  war  be- 
tween Spain  and  the  United  States,  was  the  "Virginius." 

The  Virginius  Case. 

"  The  evidence  is  the  facts  which  are  detailed,  as  found 
in  the  custom-house  papers,  relative  to  the  registry  of  the 
steamer  and  her  clearance  in  New  York  in  1870.;  the 
testimony  of  the  two  Venezuelan  prisoners  taken  at 
Havana  in  November,  1871,  by  a  Spanish  magistrate  in 
the  presence  of  the  American  and  Venezuelan  consuls; 
the  ex  parte  affidavits  of  Captain  Francis  E.  Shepperd 
and  of  two  seamen  and  certain  depositions  made  in  New 
York  in  November  and  December,  1873,  before  a  United 
States  commissioner.  This  latter  inquiry  was  by  ar- 


236  THE     PASSING    OF    SPAIN    AND 

rangement  conducted  by  a  consul  representing  the  Spanish 
Minister  and  by  the  United  States  district  attorney,  rep- 
resenting the  State  Department,  the  cross-examination 
being:  careful  and  searching:. 

o  o 

A  Blockade  Runner. 

"The  '  Virginius '  was  originally  an  English  blockade 
runner,  captured  during  the  war,  and  was  the  property 
of  the  United  States.  In  1870  she  was  lying  at  Wash- 
ington. She  was  there  sold  and  conveyed  to  John  F. 
Patterson.  There  can  be  no  doubt,  however,  that  the 
purchase  and  conveyance  were  in  the  outset  made  on 
behalf  of  the  Cuban  Junta  and  in  pursuance  of  a  pre- 
arranged agreement.  In  September,  1870,  Captain  Shep- 
perd  was  employed  as  commander.  .  .  .  Roberts  told 
Captain  Shepperd  that  he  had  bought  the  vessel  on 
account  of  certain  Cubans  and  that  these  Cubans  had 
furnished  the  money  to  pay  the  purchase  price.  The 
captain  naturally  desired  to  communicate  directly  with 
the  principals  and  an  arrangement  was  made  for  his  im- 
mediate introduction  to  them. 

Cuban  Agents. 

"  That  evening,  at  the  house  of  Mora,  an  interview  took 
place,  Roberts,  Patterson,  Mora,  Quesada,  Varona,  and 
a  number  of  other  Cubans  being  present.  Mora  and 
Quesada  declared  that  they  were  the  owners  of  the  'Vir- 
ginius.' .  .  .  She  was  to  proceed  directly  to  Curacao, 
but  her  ultimate  object  was  to  be  the  transporting  of 
arms,  munitions  of  war,  and  soldiers  to  the  island  of 
Cuba  in  aid  of  the  insurgents  thereon.  The  vessel  was 
registered  in  the  name  of  John  F.  Patterson  as  owner, 
he  making  the  necessary  oaths  as  to  his  sole  interest. 
October,  1870,  the  steamer  cleared  for  New  York  and 
the  necessary  official  documents  were  executed  by  the 
master  showing  that  she  was  bound  for  Curacao.  The 
cargo,  as  shown  by  the  manifest,  consisted  of  1 70  barrels 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  237 

of  bread,  valued  at  $680 ;  two  boxes  of  saddlery,  valued 
at  $400;  four  boxes  of  clothing,  at  $350. 

Takes  Military  Stores  Aboard. 

"  The  same  afternoon  a  few  miles  below  Sandy  Hook  she 
met  a  steam  tug  and  took  on  board  about  twenty  Cubans, 
among  whom  were  General  Quesada,  and  also  a  few  boxes 
containing  arms,  ammunition,  and  military  accoutre- 
ments. Captain  Shepperd  testified  that  during  the  entire 
voyage  he  acted  under  the  directions  of  General  Quesada. 

Cuban  Flag. 

"  At  one  time  before  reaching  their  destination,  a  mer- 
chant ship  being  in  sight,  Quesada  proposed  to  the  cap- 
tain to  raise  the  Cuban  flag  and  capture  the  vessel  if  she 
should  turn  out  to  be  Spanish.  The  worthy  captain 
declined  doing  this  himself,  but  with  a  true  thrift  sug- 
gested that  it  would  be  a  very  easy  matter  for  them  to 
overpower  him,  tie  him  in  his  cabin,  and  then  make  the 
capture  on  their  own  responsibility.  This  ingenious 
scheme  was  frustrated  by  the  discovery  that  the  vessel  in 
si^ht  was  British.  The  '  Virginius '  reached  Curacao  on 

O  O  ^^ 

the  fifteenth  of  October.  On  the  next  Tuesday  the 
'  Billie  Butts '  arrived  from  New  York  and  on  the  same 
afternoon  set  out  to  sea  again.  The  same  night  the  '  Vir- 
ginius '  followed,  overtook  the  schooner  and  towed  her  to 
Buen  Ayre,  an  island  about  thirty  miles  distant.  The 
cargo  of  the  '  Billie  Butts  '  was  immediately  transferred 
to  the  steamer.  This  cargo  consisted  of  several  hundred 
cases  of  shot,  shell,  and  ammunition ;  more  than  one  hun- 
dred cases  of  arms,  boxes  of  leather  and  other  goods,  and 
hardware ;  six  gun  carriages  and  four  brass  cannons  or 
howitzers.  The  crew  demanded  an  explanation  of  this 
transaction  and  refused  to  work  further.  General  Quesada 
promised  them  an  advance  in  their  wages  and  a  consider- 
able bonus  in  case  they  made  a  successful  landing  in 
Cuba,  and  they  thereupon  returned  to  their  duties." 


238  THE    PASSING    OF    SPAIN    AND 

In  Venezuelan  Service. 

The  steamer  now  visited  Venezuela,  where  severe  war 
was  raging.  Quesada  sided  with  one  of  the  partisans,  in 
return  for  which  help  was  promised  him  in  Cuba.  Some 
small  Venezuelan  gunboats  belonging  to  the  opposing 
faction  were  captured  while  the  "  Virginius  "  was  present 
and  flying  the  Cuban  flag.  When  the  Venezuelan  con- 
test closed  General  Quesada  with  some  Venezuelans  and 
Cubans  started  for  Cuba. 

Successful  Landing. 

"On  the  2ist  of  June,  1871,  she  made  a  successful 
landing  on  the  southern  coast  of  Cuba.  She  at  once  dis- 
charged the  troops  and  her  cargo,  which  consisted  of  car- 
bines, rifles,  large  quantities  of  ammunition,  military 
equipments  and  clothing." 

Prior  to  this,  Captain  Shepperd,  not  getting  his  pay 
promptly  and  objecting  to  the  Venezuelan  incident,  left 
and  returned  to  New  York. 

A  New  Captain. 

"  About  the  ist  of  April,  1872,  we  find  her  loaded  up 
at  Aspinwall,  where  Francis  Bowen,  an  experienced  ship- 
master, was  employed  by  General  Quesada  to  act  as  her 
captain.  Quesada  informed  him  that  the  steamer  was  to 
land  an  expedition  on  the  coast  of  Cuba  and  offered  $300 
per  month  salary  and  a  bonus  of  $5,000  if  the  attempt 
was  successful.  The  new  captain  finding  no  American 
flag  on  board,  purchased  one.  No  concealment  was 
attempted  by  Quesada  or  Captain  Bowen  in  reference  to 
the  character  or  destination  of  the  vessel.  About  the 
first  of  May  she  sailed  with  sealed  orders  issued  by 
Quesada. 

Protected  by  the  "  Kansas." 

"  By  the  direction  of  the  American  consul  the  United 
States  gunboat  '  Kansas '  escorted  her  out  to  sea  in 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  239 

order  to  protect  her  from  an  apprehended  attack  by  the 
Spanish  man-of-war  '  Pizarro,'  which  was  lying  at  Aspin- 
wall." 

She  made  a  successful  landing  as  before.  Captain 
Bowen  resigned  and  went  to  New  York. 

True  Ownership  Shown. 

"The  '  Virginius'  was  largely  indebted  to  Aspinwall  for 
repairs,  supplies  and  other  necessaries.  A  bottomry 
bond  was  given  to  Mahle  Bros.,  merchants  at  that  place, 
who  had  acted  as  her  agents  and  also  as  agents  for  the 

O  O 

Cuban  Junta.  This  bond  was  executed  by  Quesada 
without  any  communication  or  attempt  to  communicate 
with  Patterson  in  New  York,  who  stood  as  owner  in  the 
registry.  This  one  fact  alone  is  conclusive.  After  leav- 
ing New  York  no  communication  whatever  was  had  with 
Patterson,  the  owner  in  the  registry.  No  advice  was 
ever  asked,  no  direction  ever  sought,  but  he  was  utterly 
ignored  by  masters,  officers,  and  crew  of  the  steamer  and 
by  the  American  consuls  and  local  authorities  in  the 
ports  which  she  visited.  Quesada  declared  that  the 
vessel  belonged  entirely  to  the  Cubans,  that  Patterson 
had  no  interest  in  her,  that  his  name  was  used  as  a  cover 
because  it  was  necessary  that  an  American  should  appear 
in  the  registry  as  owner,  and  that  she  would  never  return 
to  the  United  States.  Repeated  declarations  of  Patter- 
son to  the  same  effect  were  also  proved. 

Her  Character  Well  Known. 

"American  consuls  in  the  various  ports  which  the  'Vir- 
ginius' used  were  fully  aware  of  her  true  character.  Yet 
most  of  them  not  only  shut  their  ears  to  Spanish  com- 
plaints but  openly,  actively,  and  zealously  assisted  the 
Cuban  insurgents  in  carrying  out  their  projects  and  in 
consummating  their  fraud  upon  the  United  States  sov- 


240  THE    PASSING    OF    SPAIN    AND 

ereignty.  A  man  at  Maracaibo  warned  Captain  Smith 
in  the  following  friendly  manner :  l  Why  don't  you  get 
rid  of  that  damned  pirate?  She  is  nothing  but  a  pirate 
and  you  will  get  caught  by  and  by  and  they  will  hang 
you.  I  want  to  see  you  whole,  anyhow,  though  I  don't 
care  for  any  of  the  rest.' " 

British  Flag  Refused. 

At  one  port  it  was  proposed  to  sell  her  to  an  English- 
man and  take  out  English  papers,  but  the  English  con- 
sul called  on  Captain  Smith,  asked  him  if  he  intended  to 
hoist  the  British  flag  and  said,  "  I  have  a  telegraph  from 
the  British  minister  at  Caracas  to  seize  her  as  a  pirate  if 
she  hoists  the  British  flag."  The  flag  was  not  raised. 

The  Fatal  Expedition. 

She  went  to  Kingston,  Jamaica,  and  made  preparations 
for  the  third  expedition.  "  Captain  Joseph  Fry,  a  United 
States  citizen,  who  had  served  in  the  Confederate  navy, 
arrived  in  J  uly  and  took  command.  The  cargo  of  arms, 
ammunition  and  other  war-like  materials  which  had  been 
accumulating  was  placed  on  board.  A  considerable 
number  of  persons  intending  to  join  the  insurgents  also 
embarked,  a  few  of  whom  were  American  citizens  or 
British  subjects.  All  these  proceedings  were  open, 
notorious,  without  an  attempt  at  concealment.  On  the 
23d  of  October,  1873,  she  cleared  as  a  United  States 
vessel  for  Port  Simon,  Costa  Rica ;  proceeded  to  the 
coast  of  Cuba  with  the  design  of  effecting  a  landing;  she 
was  intercepted  by  the  Spanish  gunboat,  "  Tornado ; "  a 
chase  of  eighty  miles  long  ensued  and  ended  by  her  cap 
ture  on  the  thirty-first  of  October,  at  a  point  about  eigh- 
teen miles  distant  from  the  east  end  of  Jamaica.  During 
this  chase,  and  at  the  moment  of  capture,  she  was  flying 
the  United  States  flag.* 

"  American  Law  Review,     Boston. 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  241 

When  captured,  little  if  any  contraband  of  war  was 
found  on  board  the  "  Virginius,"  but  among  her  passen- 
gers were  relatives  of  the  Cuban  leaders  and  officers  of 
the  Cuban  army.  There  were  in  all  155  persons  on 
board,  crew  52 ;  passengers  103  International  law 
requires  that  a  prize  shall  be  taken  to  the  nearest  port, 
but  this  would  have  been  one  in  Jamaica,  subject  to  Eng- 
lish influence,  and  no  such  indiscriminate  slaughter  would 
have  been  permitted  there  as  followed  at  Santiago,  whither 
the  "  Tornado  "  proceeded  with  her  prize.  The  character 
of  the  "  Virginius  "  was  well  known,  and  a  great  deal  of 
resentment  was  quite  naturally  felt  toward  her.  Four 
passengers,  three  Cubans  and  one  claiming  British  citizen- 
ship, were  tried  by  drumhead  court-martial  and  were  shot 
November  4th,  thirty-seven  of  the  crew,  including  Captain 
Fry,  November  yth,  and  twelve  more  passengers  Nov- 
ember 8th.  Of  those  massacred,  sixteen  were  British 
subjects  and  eight  Americans.  This  summary  trial  with- 
out the  benefit  of  counsel  before  military  authorities  was 
in  opposition  to  all  treaty  rights.  Further,  the  worst  that 
could  be  said  of  the  ."  Virginius  "  was  that  she  was  a 
smuggler.  It  is  said  that  the  Spanish  authorities  intended 
to  shoot  the  survivors ,  one  hundred  two  in  number, 
and  would  have  done  so  but  for  the  interference  of  Captain 
Lorrain  of  the  British  man-of-war  "  Niobe,  "  who  arrived 
at  Santiago  on  the  8th.  It  was  commonly  reported  that 
Captain  Lorrain  had  threatened  to  bombard  the  town 
unless  the  executions  were  postponed,  although  we  have 
been  unable  to  find  in  the  official  documents  any  ref- 
erence to  such  threat  on  his  part 

Diplomatic  Action. 

At  once  upon  the  news  of  the  capture  reaching  the 
United   States,    General  Daniel    E.    Sickles,  our  repre- 
sentative at  the  Madrid  court,  was  cabled  to  make  strong 
representations  to  the  Spanish  government  and  see  that 
16 


242  THE    PASSING    OF    SPAIN    AND 

all  treaty  rights  were  respected.  Castelar,  then  president 
of  Spain,  stated  to  General  Sickles  that  he  had  already 
anticipated  such  request  and  had  cabled  the  colonial 
authorities  to  delay  executions  until  a  regular  investiga- 
tion could  be  made.  The  colonial  authorities  insisted  that 
the  cables  were  not  in  working  order  and  that  no  messages 
were  received  until  the  8th,  after  fifty-three  had  been 
massacred.  It  is  certain  that  the  messages  of  the  Ameri- 
can vice-consul  at  Santiago,  E.  G.  Schmidt,  to  the  Ameri- 
can consul  at  Jamaica  and  to  the  consul-general  at  Havana, 
were  detained  by  order  of  the  Spanish  general. 

General  Sickles,  at  Madrid,  acting  upon  instructions 
from  Hamilton  Fish,  Secretary  of  State,  presented  an 
ultimatum  to  the  Spanish  authorities  demanding  the  re- 
lease of  the  prisoners,  the  surrender  of  the  vessel,  the 
payment  of  an  indemnity,  that  the  American  flag  be 
saluted,  and  the  officers  responsible  for  the  executions 
punished,  and  insisting  upon  a  favorable  reply  within 
twelve  days. 

Our  diplomatic  representatives,  both  in  Madrid  and 
in  Cuba,  were  treated  with  discourtesy,  and  while  Spain 
was  presenting  one  face  to  them  she,  through  her  am- 
bassador at  Washington,  was  acting  in  quite  a  different 
manner.  Some  friction  developed  between  the  State 
Department  and  General  Sickles,  who  thought  the  former 
taking  the  affair  out  of  his  hands,  and  he  tendered  his 
resignation,  but  was  prevailed  upon  to  occupy  his  posi- 
tion until  the  question  was  settied.  He  then  resigned 
and  asked  that  all  correspondence  should  be  published.* 

In  addition  to  surrendering  the  ship  and  disclaiming 
any  thought  of  indignity  to  the  flag,  the  Spanish  govern- 
ment paid  $80,000  to  the  families  of  the  American  citi- 
zens who  had  been  massacred. 

The  affair  very  nearly  involved  the  United   States  in 

*For  further  details  the  reader  is  refered   to  the   Executive  Documents  for 
the  year  1873,  where  the  whole  correspondence  can  be  found. 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  243 

war  with  Spain,  and  probably  President  Grant's  vigorous 
preparations  and  cool  head  saved  us.  His  special  mes- 
sage of  1873,  which  follows,  shows  how  serious  he  con- 
sidered the  danger. 

"  The  embargoing  of  American  estates  in  Cuba ;  cruelty 
to  American  citizens  detected  in  no  act  of  hostility  to 
the.  Spanish  government;  the  murdering  of  prisoners 
taken  with  arms  in  their  hands,  and,  finally,  the  capture 
upon  high  seas  of  a  vessel  sailing  under  the  United 
States  registry,  have  culminated  in  an  outburst  of  indig- 
nation that  has  seemed  for  a  time  to  threaten  war.  Pend- 
ing negotiations  between  the  United  States  and  the 
government  of  Spain  on  the  subject  of  this  capture,  I 
have  authorized  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy  to  put  our 
navy  on  a  war  footing,  to  the  extent,  at  least,  of  the  entire 
annual  appropriation  for  that  branch  of  the  service,  trust- 
ing to  Congress  and  the  public  opinion  of  the  American 
people  to  justify  my  action. 

"On  the  26th  day  of  September,  1870,  the  'Virginius' 
was  registered  in  the  custom  house  at  New  York  as 
the  property  of  a  citizen  of  the  United  States,  he  having 
first  made  oath,  as  required  by  law,  that  he  was  the  true 
and  only  owner  of  the  said  vessel,  and  that  there  was  no 
subject  or  citizen  of  any  foreign  prince  or  state  directly 
or  indirectly,  by  way  of  trust,  confidence,  or  otherwise, 
interested  therein. 

"  Having  complied  with  the  requisites  of  the  statute  in 
that  behalf,  she  cleared  in  the  usual  way  for  the  port  of 
Curacoa,  and  on  or  about  the  4th  day  of  October,  1870, 
sailed  for  that  port.  It  is  not  disputed  that  she  made  the 
voyage  according  to  her  clearance,  nor  that,  from  that 
day  to  this,  she  has  not  returned  within  the  territorial 
jurisdiction  of  the  United  States.  It  is  also  understood 
that  she  preserved  her  American  papers,  and  that  when 
within  foreign  ports  she  made  the  practice  of  putting 


244  THE    PASSING    OF    SPAIN    AND 

forth  a  claim  to  American  nationality,  which  was  recog- 
nized by  the  authorities  at  such  ports. 

"  When,  therefore,  she  left  the  port  of  Kingston,  under 
the  flag  of  the  United  States,  she  would  appear  to  have 
had,  as  against  all  powers  except  the  United  States,  the 
right  to  fly  that  flag,  and  to  claim  its  protection,  as  en- 
joyed by  all  regularly  documented  vessels  registered  as 
part  of  our  commercial  marine. 

"  No  state  of  war  existed,  conferring  upon  a  maritime 
power  the  right  to  molest  and  detain  upon  the  high  seas 
a  documented  vessel ;  and  it  cannot  be  pretended  that 
the  'Virginius'  had  placed  herself  without  the  pale  of  all 
law  by  acts  of  piracy  against  the  human  race. 

"  If  her  papers  were  irregular  or  fraudulent,  the  offense 
was  one  against  the  laws  of  the  United  States,  justifiable 
only  in  their  tribunals. 

"It  is  a  well-established  principle,  asserted  by  the 
United  States  from  the  beginning  of  their  national 
independence,  recognized  by  Great  Britain  and  other 
maritime  powers,  and  stated  by  the  Senate  in  a  resolu- 
tion passed  unanimously  on  the  i6th  of  June,  1858, 
that— 

"  'American  vessels  on  the  high  seas  in  time  of  peace, 
bearing  the  American  flag,  remain  under  the  jurisdic- 
tion of  the  country  to  which  they  belong,  and  therefore 
any  visitation,  molestation,  or  detention  of  such  vessel 
by  force,  or  by  the  exhibition  of  force,  on  the  part  of  a 
foreign  power,  is  in  derogation  of  the  sovereignty  of  the 
United  States. ' 

"  When,  therefore,  it  became  known  that  the  Virginius 
had  been  captured  on  the  high  seas  by  a  Spanish  man- 
of-war  ;  that  the  American  flag  had  been  hauled  down 
by  the  captors ;  that  the  vessel  had  been  carried  to  a 
Spanish  port ;  and  that  Spanish  tribunals  were  taking 
jurisdiction  over  the  persons  of  tbose  found  on  her,  and 
exercising  that  jurisdiction  upon  American  citizens,  not 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  245 

only  in  violation  of  the  rules  of  international  law,  but 
in  contravention  of  the  provisions  of  the  treaty  of  1795, 
I  directed  a  demand  to  be  made  upon  Spain  for  the 
restoration  of  the  vessel,  and  for  the  return  of  the  sur- 
vivors to  the  protection  of  the  United  States,  for  a  salute 
to  the  flag,  and  for  the  punishment  of  the  offending 
parties. 

"  The  principles  upon  which  these  demands  rested 
could  not  be  seriously  questioned,  but  it  was  suggested 
by  the  Spanish  government  that  there  were  grave  doubts 
whether  the  '  Virginius  '  was  entitled  to  the  character  given 
her  by  her  papers ;  and  that  therefore  it  might  be 
proper  for  the  United  States,  after  the  surrender  of  the 
vessel  and  the  survivors,  to  dispense  with  the  salute  to 
the  flag,  should  that  fact  be  established  to  their  satis- 
faction. 

"  This  seemed  reasonable  and  just.  I  therefore 
assented  to  it,  on  the  assurance  that  Spain  would  then 
declare  that  no  insult  to  the  flag  of  the  United  States 
had  been  intended. 

"  I  also  authorized  an  agreement  to  be  made  that, 
should  it  be  shown  to  the  satisfaction  of  this  government 
that  the  '  Virginius  '  was  improperly  bearing  the  flag,  pro- 
ceedings should  be  instituted  in  our  courts  for  the  pun- 
ishment of  the  offense  committed  against  the  United 
States.  On  her  part  Spain  undertook  to  proceed  against 
those  who  had  offended  the  sovereignty  of  the  United 
States,  or  who  had  violated  their  treaty  rights. 

"  The  surrender  of  the  vessel  and  the  survivors  to  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  tribunals  of  the  United  States  was  an 
admission  of  the  principles  upon  which  our  demands  had 
been  founded.  I  therefore  had  no  hesitation  in  agreeing 
to  the  arrangement  finally  made  between  the  two  gov- 
ernments —  an  arrangement  which  was  moderate  and 
just,  and  calculated  to  cement  the  good  relations  which 
have  so  long  existed  between  Spain  and  the  United  States. 


246  THE    PASSING    OF    SPAIN    AND 

"  Under  this  agreement  the  'Virginius,'  with  the  Amer- 
ican flag  flying,  was  delivered  to  the  Navy  of  the  United 
States  at  Bahia  Honda,  in  the  island  of  Cuba,  on  the 
1 6th  ultimo.  She  was  in  an  unseaworthy  condition.  In 
the  passage  to  New  York  she  encountered  one  of  the 
most  tempestuous  of  our  winter  storms.  At  the  risk  of 
their  lives  the  officers  and  crew  placed  in  charge  of  her 
attempted  to  keep  her  afloat.  Their  efforts  were  un- 
availing and  she  sank  off  Cape  Fear.  The  prisoners 
who  survived  the  massacres  were  surrendered  at  Santiago 
de  Cuba  on  the  iSth  ultimo,  and  reached  the  port  of 
New  York  in  safety. 

"  The  evidence  submitted  on  the  part  of  Spain  to 
establish  the  fact  that  the  '  Virginius  '  at  the  time  of  her 
capture  was  improperly  bearing  the  flag  of  the  United 
States  is  transmitted  herewith,  together  with  the  opinion 
of  the  Attorney-General  thereon,  and  a  copy  of  the  note 
of  the  Spanish  minister,  expressing,  on  behalf  of  his  gov- 
ernment, a  disclaimer  of  an  intent  of  indignity  to  the  flag 
of  the  United  States.  * 

Massacre  of  Havana  Students. 

Two  years  previous  to  the  shooting  of  the  "  Virgin- 
ius "  prisoners,  an  event  had  occurred  in  Havana  that 
shocked  the  civilized  world.  A  member  of  the  Cuban 
"  Volunteers  "  died,  and  the  body  was  placed  in  a  public 
tomb  in  Havana.  Later,  the  tomb  is  said  to  have  been 
defaced  by  writing  thereon  things  not  complimentary  to 
the  volunteers.  Students  of  the  university  were  sus- 
pected of  being  implicated  in  the  affair,  and  on  the  com- 
plaint of  the  volunteer  corps  forty-three  of  these  were 
arrested,  charged  with  having  defaced  the  tomb,  and 
brought  to  trial.  The  proceedings  were  marked  by 
much  bitter  feeling.  However,  a  brave  and  honorable 
officer  of  the  regular  army  of  Spain  appeared  before  the 

*Executive  Documents,  1873. 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  247 

court-martial  and  defended  them  with  such  ability  that 
they  were  acquitted.  The  volunteers,  used  to  having  their 
own  way  in  everything,  appealed  to  the  Governor-General, 
and  prevailed  upon  him  to  order  a  new  trial  before  a 
second  court-martial,  which  they  "  packed  "  until  two- 
thirds  of  that  body  was  made  up  of  volunteers.  The 
result  was  a  foregone  conclusion,  for  the  volunteers  now 
appeared  as  accuser,  judge  and  executioner.  All  of  the 
students  were  found  guilty.  Eight  were  sentenced  to  be 
shot,  and  the  others  to  long  terms  of  imprisonment  at 
hard  labor.  The  sentence  was  carried  out  the  next 
morning,  November  27,  1871,  15,000  of  Havana's 
"  gentlemen  soldiers  "  turning  out  in  force  to  massacre 
eight  school  boys. 

The  affair  excited  the  greatest  indignation  through- 
out the  United  States.  The  punishment  was  so 
obviously  inconsistent  that  the  Spanish  Cortes  was 
compelled  to  notice  it  by  public  censure.  No  other 
attempt  to  punish  the  perpetrators  of  the  deed  was 
made. 

The  students  of  Havana  now  observe  "  November 
2  7th  "with  appropriate  ceremonies,  although  great  care 
is  taken  that  it  may  not  furnish  occasion  for  a  conflict 
with  the  authorities. 

Why  the  Cubans  Rebelled. 

The  Cuban  debt  began  in  1864  by  the  issue  of  bonds 
to  the  amount  of  $3,000,000,  for  expense  incurred  by 
Spain  in  the  wars  of  Santo  Domingo,  Peru  and  Mexico. 
There  is  no  good  reason  why  this  should  not  have  been 
paid  by  the  peninsula,  but  it  was  saddled  upon  Cuba.  To 
this  has  been  added  the  expense  of  every  insurrection  in 
Cuba  and  the  salary  of  a  horde  of  Spanish  officials,  and 
indirectly,  through  unparalleled  corruption,  as  much  more 
has  been  bled  from  the  island  by  thievish  officials. 

In   1884  the  island  paid  for  pensions  of  Spanish  offi- 


248  THE    PASSING    OF    SPAIN    AND 

cers,  $468,000;  pay  of  Spanish  officers  (retired),  $918,000; 
pay  of  Spanish  officers  (active),  $10,115,420;  salary  of 
governor-general,  $50,000;  for  the  maintenance  of  church 
and  clergy  (all  Spaniards),  $379,757;  pay  of  Spanish 
soldiers  doing  police  duty,  $2,537,119.  Measured  by 
American  standpoints,  the  pay  of  the  Spanish  officials  is 
wholly  out  of  proportion.  The  governor-general  receives 
$50,000,  as  much  as  the  president  of  the  United  States; 
the  governors  of  each  of  the  provinces  receive  $12,000, 
while  the  governor  of  the  State  of  New  York,  who  repre- 
sents four  times  as  many  people  and  fifty  times  as  much 
wealth  as  the  whole  island,  receives  $10,000.  Cuba  pays 
two  archbishops  $18,000  each.  In  addition  to  the  enor- 
moul  salaries  paid  all  these  officers  appointed  by  the 
Spanish  crown,  Cuba  has  stolen  from  her  revenues  each 
year  perhaps  as  much  as  the  revenue  regularly  raised. 

General  Pando,  now  commanding  a  body  of  Spanish 
troops  in  Cuba,  stated  in  a  public  speech  made  in  1890, 
that  he  held  the  statistics  of  a  series  of  embezzlements 
reaching  more  than  $40,000,000. 

A  member  of  the  Spanish  Cortes  in  1891  declared 
that  there  were  350  persons  employed  in  Cuba  as  repre- 
sentatives of  the  crown,  against  whom  proceedings  had 
been  taken  for  fraud,  and  not  one  of  whom  had  ever  been 
punished. 

In  June,  1895,  the  public  debt  of  Cuba  had  nearly 
reached  the  enormous  sum  of  $300,000,000,  an  average 
for  each  person  of  $187.00.  The  public  debt  of  the 
United  States  averages  for  each  person  about  $14.00. 

Cuba  is  almost  wholly  an  agricultural  country.  It 
produces  but  a  small  portion  of  the  necessities  for  home 
consumption  and  pays  for  the  rest  with  but  two  products, 
tobacco  and  sugar.  The  sugar-cane  industries  of  Cuba 
have  had  to  encounter  keen  competition  from  the  sugar- 
beet  industries  of  Europe.  The  tobacco  industry  has 
been  handicapped  by  heavy  export  duties,  which  have 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  249 

enhanced  the  price  of  the  raw  material  to  the  manufac- 
turer until  he  has  been  driven  to  use  inferior  grades  and 
the  tobacco-growing  industries  of  other  nations  have  been 
further  stimulated  by  Spain's  exactions  upon  her  own 
colonies. 

The  unjust  laws  and  exorbitant  taxes  have  driven  large 
numbers  of  citizens  from  Cuba  that  the  island  needs,  and 
it  is  estimated  that  there  are  now  in  the  United  States 
alone  40,000  Cubans. 

Staggering  under  a  burden  of  debt,  deprived  of  privi- 
leges that  Americans  deem  the  inherent  rights  of  man, 
with  no  hope  that  the  future  might  hold  alleviation  for 
their  miseries,  what  wonder  that  the  inhabitants  again 
take  up  arms  in  behalf  of  their  independence. 

Insurrection  Planned. 

The  present  insurrection  was  organized  about  the 
close  of  1894  by  Jose  Marti  (the  father  of  the  revolution), 
who  was  then  in  New  York.  He  chartered  three  vessels, 
loaded  them  with  arms  and  ammunition,  intending  to 
make  a  landing  in  Cuba,  but  the  expedition  was  stopped 
at  Fernandina,  Florida,  by  the  United  States  authorities. 
February  24th,  1895,  had  been  fixed  upon  as  the  day 
for  striking  the  first  blow.  Marti  left  New  York  in  Jan- 
uary, 1895,  for  Santo  Domingo,  where  he  joined  Maximo 
Gomez  and  other  Cuban  leaders.  Although  these  lead- 
ers apparently  did  not  reach  the  island  until  May,  when 
the  eventful  24th  day  of  February  arrived,  twenty-four 
daring  spirits  at  Ybarra,  in  the  province  of  Matanzas, 
defied  the  authorities  and  declared  Cuba  free.  In  spite 
of  their  lack  of  leaders  the  insurgents  made  rapid  head- 
way from  the  first.  Several  encounters  took  place  in 
March  and  April,  usually  with  advantage  to  the  insur- 
gents. April  ist  General  Maceo  landed  from  Costa  Rica 
and  joined  the  Cuban  army.  Ten  days  later  Jose  Marti, 
the  head  of  the  revolution ;  General  Maximo  Gomez,  the 


250  THE    PASSING    OF    SPAIN    AM" 

general-in-chief,  and  some  others  landed  in  the  province 
of  Santiago,  and  the  news  of  their  presence  wonderfully 
increased  the  insurgents'  forces.  Spain  soon  recognized 
the  gravity  of  affairs  and  made  preparations  to  send 
Martinez  Campos,  the  leader  of  Spanish  forces  in  the 
"  Ten  Years'  War,"  to  take  charge  of  matters  in  Cuba. 

The  "Allianea"  Affair. 

The  colonial  authorities  were  much  exercised  over 
reported  filibustering  expeditions  fitted  out  in  the  United 
States,  and  were  suspicious  of  every  strange  vessel. 
March  8,  1895,  an  American  steamer,  the  "  Allianea,"  run- 
ning between  New  York  and  Colon,  Panama,  was  fired 
upon  when  near  the  coast  of  Cuba  and  in  the  regular 
channel  for  coast  vessels,  the  Spanish  man-of-war  suspect- 
ing that  the  "Allianea  "  was  carrying  contraband  of  war  for 
the  Cuban  insurgents.  Captain  Crossman  of  the  Ameri- 
can ship  refused  to  stop,  and  putting  on  full  speed  was 
soon  able  to  leave  the  Spaniard  behind.  A  complaint 
was  made  to  the  State  Department,  who  in  turn  pro- 
tested vigorously  to  the  Spanish  government  against 
interference  with  American  steamers.  "  Forcible  inter- 
ference with  them  cannot  be  claimed  as  a  belligerent  act 
whether  they  pass  within  three  miles  of  the  Cuban  coast 
or  not  and  can  under  no  circumstances  be  tolerated  when 
no  state  of  war  exists."* 

The  Spanish  government  made  an  apology,  disavowed 
the  act  and  relieved  the  Spanish  officer  of  his  command. 

April  1 6th  General  Campos  arrived  in  Cuba  with  rein- 
forcements and  unlimited  power,  and  it  was  expected  that 
he  would  make  short  work  with  the  insurrection  which 
was  at  that  time  confined  to  the  eastern  provinces. 

Campos,  upon  his  arrival,  prepared  to  confine  the  insur- 
gents to  the  eastern  provinces  and  built  across  the  island 
a  line  of  forts  called  trocha  (trenches),  a  system  of 

*State  Department. 


THE     ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  25! 

defenses  he  had  successfully  used  in  the  previous  "  Ten 
Years'  War."  The  first  trocha  was  no  barrier  to  the 
insurgents  under  Gomez  and  Maceo.  The  second  one 
proved  no  more  effectual.  Campos,  retreating  toward 
Havana,  drew  a  third,  shorter  and  stronger  one,  from 
Matanzas  across  the  island  south.  On  the  railroad  run- 
ning from  Havana  to  Batabana  he  placed  numerous 
freight  cars  plated  with  boiler  iron  and  pierced  with  loop- 
holes for  rifles.  These  cars  were  "kept  moving  almost 
constantly,  but  in  spite  of  all  his  elaborate  preparation 
Maceo  passed  the  line  and  reached  the  rich  tobacco  dis- 
trict of  Pinar  del  Rio,  having  marched  the  whole  length 
of  the  island.  Campos'  failure  to  subdue  the  revolution 
and  his  retreat  upon  Havana  aggravated  the  "  Penin- 
sulars "  so  much  that  they  demanded  his  recall  and  he 
was  succeeded  on  the  loth  of  February,  1896,  by  General 
Weyler. 

Weyler. 

Weyler  constructed  a  fourth  trocha  across  the  island, 
about  twenty-five  miles  west  of  Havana,  which  has  become 
famous  enough  to  warrant  a  description.  It  consists  of 
a  ditch  nine  feet  wide  and  filled  with  water  on  the  levels. 
On  each  side  is  a  barbed  wire  fence  and  east  of  the  ditch 
is  a  fairly  good  road  which  was  constantly  patrolled  by 
cavalry  and  flying  artillery.  On  the  west  bank  at  inter- 
vals were  block  houses  and  earthworks  constantly  gar- 
risoned and  connected  with  each  other  by  telephone. 
This  was  supposed  to  be  impassable,  but  Gomez  and 
Maceo  have  shown  it  slight  courtesy. 

Marti  soon  fell  in  battle  at  Don  Rios,  May  19,  1895, 
but  not  until  he  had  kindled  a  conflagration  that  all 
Spain's  forces  could  not  subdue.  Upon  landing  in  Cuba 
he  had  issued  a  call  for  representatives  to  a  constitu- 
tional convention.  It  met  in  September,  after  his  death. 
Forty  representatives  met,  twenty  from  the  army  and 


252  THE    PASSING   OF    SPAIN    AND 

twenty  from  the  provinces,  every  province  being  rep- 
resented except  Pinar  del  Rio.  On  the  i6th  of  Sep- 
tember they  adopted  a  constitution,  and  two  days  later 
elected  a  President,  Vice-President,  Secretary  of  State, 
Secretary  of  War,  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  General- 
in-Chief  and  Lieutenant-General.  The  convention 
passed  laws  establishing  the  political  boundaries  of 
states  and  districts,  establishing  post-offices,  providing 
for  the  collection  of  taxes  and  regulating  marriages. 
The  whole  appears  fairly  well  on  paper,  but  it  is  doubt- 
ful if  it  exists  as  a  full-fledged  institution  elsewhere.  At 
present,  Bartolome  Masso  is  President,  Domingo  Men- 
doz  Capote,  Vice-President,  and  Maximo  Gomez  General- 
in-Chief. 

Cuban  Capital. 

Their  capital,  called  Cubitas,  is  situated  on  top  of  a 
mountain,  twenty-five  miles  east  of  Puerto  Principe. 
The  sides  of  the  mountain  are  exceedingly  steep.  The 
top  is  reached  only  by  narrow  paths,  and  a  few  desperate 
and  daring  men  could  easily  defend  it  against  a  large 
force.  Neither  could  it  well  be  reduced  by  starvation, 
for  the  top  is  nearly  level,  contains  about  a  square  mile 
of  fertile  land,  easily  worked,  where  corn,  sweet  potatoes 
and  other  products  common  to  the  island  are  grown. 
The  insurgents  have  erected  here  some  wooden  buildings, 
a  dynamite  factory,  etc. 

The  surface  of  Cuba  is  particularly  well  adapted  to 
guerrilla  warfare,  and  one  needs  but  to  look  at  the  his- 
tory of  Jamaica  to  see  how  prolonged  such  a  struggle 
might  be.  When  the  British  took  possession  of  that 
island  and  sought  to  subdue  the  native  inhabitants,  part 
of  them,  called  Maroons,  broke  away,  seized  strong 
positions  in  the  interior,  and  for  more  than  seventy  years 
kept  up  an  armed  resistance  to  the  British  power.  The 
mountains  of  Chile  to-day  contain  remnants  of  the  wild 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  253 

race,  the    Araucuns,  who  have    never   been  thoroughly 
subdued. 

Death  of  Maeeo. 

December  4,  1896,  General  Antonio  Maceo  crossed 
the  trochawest  of  Havana  with  a  few  men  and  appeared 
within  that  province.  He  began  to  rapidly  collect  his 
forces  who  were  coming  in  small  parties  and  soon  had 
several  hundred  men  under  his  command.  The  Span- 
iards at  once  sent  a  division  in  pursuit  of  him.  They 
came  upon  the  Cubans  intrenched  behind  a  stone  fence 
in  the  San  Pedro  plantation  and  were  warmly  received. 
Upon  the  first  repulse  of  the  Spaniads,  Maceo,  believing 
it  an  opportune  time  for  a  charge,  put  himself  at  the 
head  of  his  men  and  dashed  at  the  enemy  machete  in 
hand.  He  fell  within  fifty  paces  of  the  Spanish  line 
pierced  by  two  balls.  The  Spaniards  not  recognizing 
the  corpse  as  that  of  their  dreaded  opponent  left  it  upon 
their  retreat  and  it  was  recovered  by  the  Cubans  and 
buried  in  a  secret  place,  those  present  taking  oath  not 
to  reveal  the  spot  and  renewing  their  vows  not  to  lay 
down  their  arms  until  Cuba  should  be  free. 

The  "Competitor"  Incident. 

The  American  schooner  "  Competitor  "  left  Key  West 
with  about  forty  men  under  Colonel  Monzon  of  the 
Cuban  army  with  arms  and  ammunition.  A  landing 
was  made  on  the  north  coast  of  Pinar  del  Rio.  The 
men  and  all  the  stores  were  put  ashore,  when  a  Spanish 
gunboat  appeared  in  the  offing.  The  "  Competitor " 
hoisted  an  American  flag  and  tried  to  escape,  but  was 
boarded  and  captured  and  the  following  taken  prisoners : 
Alfredo  Laborde,  Teodoro  de  la  Maza,  Dr.  Elias  Bedia, 
John  Milton  of  Kansas  and  William  Gildear,  an  English- 
man. They  were  taken  to  Havana  April  3oth.  On  the 
8th  of  May  they  were  tried  by  a  naval  court-martial, 
apparently  organized  expressly  to  convict  them,  for  the 


254  THE    PASSING    OF    SPAIN    AND 

only  testimony  taken  was  that  of  the  Spanish  com- 
mander who  had  captured  them.  Four  declared  them- 
selves Americans,  and  the  loth  of  May  they  were  sen- 
tenced to  death,  Weyler  approving  the  sentence.  They 
would  have  been  executed  on  the  I2th  but  for  the  ener- 
getic demands  of  General  Lee. 

"  I  earnestly  and  vigorously  protested  against  the  arrest 
of  these  American  citizens,  telling  General  Weyler  that 
it  was  in  violation  of  the  treaty  and  protocol  between 
Spain  and  the  United  States,  which,  in  my  opinion,  lim- 
ited the  confinement  'in  communicado'  to  seventy-two 
hours.  '  In  communicado  '  is  a  Spanish  term,  meaning 
literally  without  communication.  And  these  Ameri- 
cans, without  any  charges  against  them  that  I  could 
ascertain,  and  without  warning,  and  without  the  knowl- 
edge of  their  friends  and  relatives,  were  arrested  and 
thrown  into  these  little  '  in  communicado '  cells,  about 
eight  by  ten  feet,  stone  floors  and  dark,  and  kept  in  these 
horrid  little  holes  for  days  and  days  without  being  al- 
lowed to  see  and  talk  with  anyone.  I  told  Weyler  that 
in  our  country  the  law  presumed  every  man  innocent 
until  he  was  proved  guilty;  but  by  the  Spanish  process 
every  man  was  guilty  and  they  did  not  even  give  him  an 
opportunity  to  prove  his  innocence.  But  he  replied  that 
he  had  published  a  proclamation  establishing  martial 
law,  and  that  the  terms  of  that  proclamation  superseded 
the  stipulations  of  the  treaty.  To  which  I  answered  that 
the  terms  of  treaties  between  two  countries  at  peace 
could  not  be  set  aside,  changed  or  altered,  except  by  the 
action  of  one  or  both  of  the  contracting  parties,  and  that 
his  proclamation  was  therefore  inoperative  where  its 
stipulations  came  in  conflict  with  the  treaty  mandates. 

Murder  of  DP.  Ruiz. 

"  The  situation,  however,  remained  unchanged  until 
finally  Dr.  Ruiz,  an  American  dentist  who  was  practicing 
his  profession  in  a  town  called  Guanabacoa,  some  four 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF   AMERICA.  255 

miles  from  Havana,  was  arrested.  A  railroad  train  be- 
tween Havana  and  this  town  had  been  captured  by  the 
insurgents  and  the  next  day  the  Spanish  authorities  ar- 
rested a  large  number  of  persons  in  Guanabacoa  charg- 
ing them  with  giving  information  which  enabled  the 
troops,  under  their  enterprising  young  leader,  Aranguren, 
to  make  the  capture ;  and  among  these  persons  arrested 
was  this  American.  He  was  a  strongly  built,  athletic 
man,  who  confined  himself  strictly  to  the  practice  of  his 
profession  and  let  politics  severely  alone.  He  had  noth- 
ing to  do  with  the  train  being  captured,  but  that  night 
was  visiting  a  neighbor  opposite,  until  nine  or  ten  o'clock, 
when  he  returned  to  his  house  and  went  to  bed.  He 
was  arrested  by  the  police  the  next  morning;  thrown 
into  an  '  incommunicado '  cell ;  kept  there  some  three 
hundred  and  fifty  or  sixty  hours,  and  was  finally  (when 
half-crazed  by  this  terrible  imprisonment  and  calling  for 
his  wife  and  children)  struck  over  the  head  with  a  '  billy ' 
in  the  hands  of  a  brutal  jailor  and  died  from  its  effects. 
Ruiz  went  into  that  cell  an  unusually  healthy  and  vigor- 
ous man  and  came  out  a  corpse. 

"  After  this  tragedy  I  determined  no  longer  to  submit 
to  more  violations  of  the  treaty  rights  of  American  citi- 
zens and  therefore,  after  viewing  this  dead  body,  went  to 
my  office,  and  finding  that  there  was  an  American  named 
Scott  who  had  been  arrested  and  was  already  '  incom- 
municado' a  much  longer  time  than  the  prescribed  limit 
of  seventy-two  hours,  I  demanded  that  he  be  released 
from  '  in  communicado,'  and  at  the  end  of  three  days  he 
was  released,  and  since  the  hour  I  made  the  issue  no 
American  citizens  have  been  thrown  into  'incommuni- 
cado '  cells,  and  all  Americans  who  were  arrested  after- 
wards for  supposed  offenses  or  captured  in  the  insurgent 
ranks  were  invariably  turned  over  to  me,  and  I  sent  them 
to  the  United  States."  * 

*Gen.  Fitzhugh  Lee.  in  "The  Fortnightly  Review,"  June,  1898. 


256  THE    PASSING   OF    SPAIN    AND 

How  Cuba's  War  Has  Been  Conducted. 

Of  the  methods  of  conducting  the  war  both  by  the 
Cubans  and  Spaniards,  the  less  said  the  better.  If  Weyler 
by  his  "  reconcentrado  order "  has  ruined  the  country, 
Gomez  has  no  less  certainly  ruined  the  towns  that  he  has 
been  able  to  capture.  If  Weyler  ordered  within  the 
"  zone  of  cultivation  "  or  "  zone  of  starvation  "  all  the 
"  pacificos,"  Gomez  showed  hardly  less  severity  in  press- 
ing into  the  service  every  able-bodied  Cuban  whom  he 
found. 

The  Reeoneentrado  Order. 

The  style  of  guerrilla  warfare  practiced  by  the  insur- 
gents could  be  maintained  for  years,  because  the  wonder- 
fully fertile  soil  tilled  by  farmers  who  were  in  sympathy 
with  the  insurrection  would  produce  sufficient  food  to 
feed  the  rebel  army.  General  Weyler  saw  he  would  be 
unable  to  reduce  the  rebels  to  terms  so  long  as  they  had 
such  supplies  to  fall  back  upon.  It  was  then  he  issued 
his  famous  "  reconcentrado  order,"  by  whose  terms  he 
compelled  "  the  old  men,  women  and  children  to  leave 
their  homes  and  come  within  the  nearest  Spanish  forti- 
fied lines,  pains  being  taken  after  they  were  driven  from 
their  little  farms  to  burn  their  houses,  tear  up  their  plant 
beds,  and  drive  off  and  confiscate  the  few  cattle,  hogs 
and  chickens  that  they  were  obliged  to  leave." 

"The  United  States  was  naturally  shocked  at  the  bru- 
tality of  this  order,  and  saw  with  great  indignation,  some 
400,000  of  these  poor  innocent  war  victims  forced  away 
from  where  they  could  subsist  themselves,  to  the  Spanish 
lines  where  they  could  obtain  nothing  and  within  which 
nothing  was  tendered.  As  a  consequence,  over  200,000 
(principally  women  and  children  and  non-combatants) 
died  from  starvation,  and  starvation  alone.  History  pre- 
sents nowhere  such  an  appalling  record  ;  nor  do  the  mili- 
tary annals  anywhere  furnish  such  a  horrible  spectacle, 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  257 

the  result  of  a  military  order,  based  upon  a  supposed 
military  necessity. 

"  General  Weyler,  if  anything,  is  a  soldier,  trained  to  no 
other  career,  and  one  who  believes  that  everything  is  fair 
in  war,  and  every  means  justifiable  which  will  ultimately 
write  success  upon  his  standards.  He  did  not  propose  to 
make  war  with  velvet  paws,  but  to  achieve  his  purpose  of 
putting  down  the  insurrection  if  he  had  to  wade  through, 
up  to  the  visor  of  his  helmet,  the  blood  of  every  Cuban  — 
man,  woman  and  child  —  on  the  island.  And  yet,  I 
found  him  —  in  official  intercourse  —  affable,  pleasant 
and  agreeable.  He  was  always  polite  and  courteous  to 
me,  and  told  me  more  than  once  that  he  wished  I  would 
remain  in  my  position  there  as  Consul-General  as  long  as 
he  did  as  Governor  and  Captain-General.  He  was  small 
in  stature,  with  a  long  face  and  square  chin,  and  wearing 
side-whiskers  and  a  moustache;  quick,  nervous  in  his 
manner  and  gait;  decided  in  his  opinions,  he  was  loved 
by  some  and  hated  and  feared  by  others."  * 

The  farmer  was  compelled  to  grow  such  crops  as  would 
supply  the  insurgents  with  food  and  forbidden  under 
severe  penalties  from  growing  anything  that  would  supply 
the  Spaniards  with  revenue.  If  one  dared  to  travel  with- 
out a  passport  from  an  insurgent  general,  he  was  likely 
to  be  captured  and  impressed  into  the  army. 

"  The  losses  of  the  insurgent  forces  in  their  skirmishes 
with  the  Spaniards  had  also  to  be  made  good  by  these 
same  peaceful  inhabitants  who  were  unceremoniously 
pressed  into  the  rebel  army,  and  horribly  tortured  to 
death  if  they  refused  to  enlist,  or  deserted.  And  even 
when  they  obeyed  all  these  orders  with  alacrity,  as  was 
generally  the  case,  they  were  not  by  any  means  sure  that 
their  goods,  their  daughters  or  their  lives,  were  safe  from 
the  avarice,  the  lust,  or  the  vengeance  of  the  colored  man. 
Farm  houses,  manufactories,  huts,  were  frequently  burned 

*Gen.  Fitzhugh  Lee,  in  "The  Fortnightly  Review,"  June,  1898. 
17 


258  THE    PASSING   OF    SPAIN    AND 

down  by  the  rebels,  not  only  because  the  occupants  were 
supposed  to  be  unfriendly,  or  even  because  they  were  sus- 
pected of  being  lukewarm  in  the  service,  but  in  many 
cases  the  dwellings  were  reduced  to  ashes  solely  because 
they  were  too  near  a  Spanish  fort  or  too  far  from  a  Cuban 
prefecture. 

"  The  following  extract  from  the  instructions  officially 
given  to  the  insurgent  prefects  and  sub-prefects  by  the 
Provisional  Government  will  enable  the  reader  to  under- 
stand the  determination  of  the  rebels  to  force  every  in- 
habitant of  the  island  to  join  in  the  revolt  againstSpain : 

'Circular  A.  i.  Republic  of  Cuba.  Governmental 
Council.  Delegation.  For  the  purpose  of  improving 
the  service  of  the  prefecture  and  sub-prefectures,  and  in 
order  to  introduce  better  order  into  the  services  of  the 
Revolution,  I  hereby  give  you  the  following  instructions: 
You  will  make  clear  to  all  inhabitants  residing  in  your 
zone  the  obligation  imposed  upon  them  of  working  for 
the  Revolution,  calling  their  attention  to  the  fact  that 
once  they  live  under  the  protection  of  the  Republic,  they 
are  considered  to  be  soldiers  of  tJie  liberating  army. 
At  all  times  you  are  invested  with  the  right  of  util- 
izing the  individuals  of  your  zone  in  everything  connected 
with  the  service  of  the  prefecture  or  sub-prefecture, 
whereas  no  excuse  whatever  on  their  part  is  admissable. 
Sluggishness  will  not  be  allowed  under  any  pretext,  and 
all  those  inhabitants  who,  in  your  judgment  are  not 
desirable  in  this  place,  will  have  to  leave  in  seventy-two 
hours,  for  which  purpose  you  will  give  them  notice  in 
advance.  When  the  prefects  or  sub-prefects 

deem  it  opportune,  they  will  form  companies  of  inhabit- 
ants for  the  purpose  of  '  lighting  the  candles  '  (burning 
down  farm  houses  and  villages)  destroying  houses,  gran- 
aries, railways,  telegraphs,  telephones,  of  lifting  cattle,  and 
of  doing  anything  else  that  may  seem  serviceable  for  the 
Revolution. ' 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  259 

"  The  means  by  which  the  pacificos  or  peaceful  farm- 
ers of  the  interior  were  forced  to  become  rebels  are  fairly 
well  known  and  at  the  same  time  reveal  one  of  the  abund- 
ant sources  of  the  stream  of  reconcentrados  whose  num- 
ber and  sufferings  had  been  laid  to  General  Weyler's 
charge.  "* 

There  are  but  few  records  of  exchanges  of  prisoners 
among  them.  This  alone  is  significant,  for  each  side 
must  have  taken  some  prisoners.  We  should  not  expect 
much  mercy  to  be  shown  rebels  by  Spaniards,  neither 
should  we  logically  expect  much  to  be  shown  by  those  of 
Spanish  blood  or  mixed  Spanish  and  negro  blood  who 
have  been  forced  into  rebellion  by  Spanish  exactions. 

The  Spanish  forces  have  always  been  better  armed, 
and  numerically  much  stronger  than  their  opponents,  and 
it  was  plainly  for  their  interest  to  come  to  pitched  battle. 
It  is  just  as  evidently  to  the  interest  of  the  other  side  to 
break  up  into  small  armed  bands  and  avoid  pitched  bat- 
tles. The  broken  surface  and  dense  tropical  growth  of 
Cuba  affords  ideal  grounds  for  guerrilla  warfare.  The 
Cubans  have  not  expected  to  win  their  independence  by 
fighting  heavy  battles.  Their  war  was  not  against  Spanish 
flesh,  but  against  Spanish  credit.  Hence  they  left  noth- 
ing undone  that  would  permit  them  to  embarrass  the 
Spaniards  in  this  respect.  They  forbade  the  planters  to 

frind  sugar  cane.  It  was  equally  for  the  interest  of  the 
paniards  that  the  crops  should  be  harvested.  De  Lome 
said  of  General  Campos,  "  He  knew  perfectly  well  that 
if  the  sugar  crop  could  be  gathered  the  back  of  the  insur- 
rection would  be  broken."  Because  of  this  the  Cubans 
burned  the  sugar  plantations. 

This  was  not  simply  a  mad  destruction  of  property  but 
a  deliberate  and  desperate  policy.  If  the  resources  of 
the  country  were  destroyed,  Spain  could  collect  no  taxes; 
if  the  planters  had  nothing  to  sell,  it  would  be  impos- 

*Dr.  E.  J.  Dillon  in  "Contemporary  Review,"  June, 


26O  THE    PASSING    OF    SPAIN    AND 

sible  for  them  to  buy  and  Spain  could  collect  no  import 
duties.  The  vulnerable  point  for  the  Spaniards  to 
attack  was  the  Cuban  army;  the  vulnerable  point  of 
attack  for  the  Cuban  army  was  Spanish  credit. 

Such  conditions  and  such  a  war  were  sure  to  inflict 
suffering  upon  the  innocent.  The  desolation  caused 
has  been  simply  horrible ;  200,000  people  have  been 
starved  to  death,  millions  of  dollars  of  property  have  been 
destroyed,  railroad  trains  have  been  blown  up  with  dyna- 
mite without  any  consideration  for  innocent  passengers 
thereon. 

Before  the  intervention  of  the  United  States,  we  were 
told  that  all  the  Cuban  needed  to  win  his  freedom  was 
recognition  of  belligerency.  It  seems  now  that  we  were 
misinformed. 

The  Cubans  are  excellent  guerrilla  fighters,  but  since 
the  death  of  Maceo  have  been  good  for  little  else.  Under 
Garcia  they  proved  themselves  of  little  value  to  General 
Shafter  in  the  capture  of  Santiago.  Gomez's  army  was 
not  strong  enough  to  effect  a  juction  with  the  United 
States  forces  when  several  attempts  to  land  supplies  for 
him  from  the  steamship  "  Gussie  "  were  made. 

There  is  no  doubt  but  the  Spaniards  have  been  guilty 
of  deeds  of  horrible  cruelty,  and  it  is  not  safe  to  say  that 
the  Cubans'  conduct  has  always  been  in  strict  keeping 
with  the  rules  of  civilized  warfare.  It  is  stated  upon 
what  seems  to  be  good  authority  that  Captain  Evans  of 
the  "  Iowa  "  and  Lieutenant  Wainwright  of  the  "  Glou- 
cester" threatened  to  turn  their  guns  on  the  Cubans 
who  were  picking  off  the  prisoners  from  Cervera's  fleet 
as  they  struggled  through  the  water  from  the  burning 
vessels. 

The  record  of  the  Spanish-American  colonies  now 
independent,  seems  to  prove  conclusively  that  people 
suddenly  freed  from  Spanish  rule  are  not  for  a  long  time 
capable  of  self-government.  Spanish  misrule  certainly 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  26 1 

explains  and  may  in  some  degree  excuse,  but  it  cannot 
justify  such  warfare  as  this.  The  wisdom  of  President 
McKinley  in  refusing  recognition  to  the  so-called  Cuban 
Republic  of  the  insurgents  is  daily  becoming  more 
apparent. 

The  Cuba  of  the  future. 

Given  a  government  that  will  guarantee  capital  against 
the  impositions  it  has  suffered  in  the  past  hundred  years 
in  that  island,  make  the  laborer  sure  that  he  will  not  be 
taxed  to  death  or  have  his  throat  cut,  and  we  shall  ex- 
pect to  see  the  magnificent  resources  of  the  island  develop 
with  marvelous  rapidity.  There  is  no  soil  more  fertile 
than  the  best  parts  of  Cuba.  Its  vast  forests,  at  present 
covering  a  large  portion  of  the  surface  of  the  island, 
contain  timber  valuable  for  ship-building  and  commerce. 
Even  in  the  recent  unsettled  condition  of  the  island,  two 
American  companies  thought  it  worth  while  to  develop 
and  begin  the  operation  of  iron  mines  there. 

A  fine  quality  of  marble  is  found  in  the  Isle  of  Pines, 
and  the  extreme  eastern  and  western  portions  of  the 
island  produce  a  fair  quality  of  copper. 

The  chief  Wealth  of  the  island  will  always  remain  in 
its  extremely  fertile  soil.  Owing  to  the  absence  of  frost, 
two  crops  of  grains,  like  rice  or  Indian  corn,  can  be  raised 
in  one  year. 

We  believe  that  under  a  stable  government  American 
capital  will  flow  in  and  the  island  soon  prove  its  just  claim 
to  the  title  "  The  Pearl  of  the  Antilles." 


262  THE    PASSING    OF    SPAIN    AND 

CHAPTER   VII. 
International  Law. 

"  A  collection  of  rules  by  which  nations  and  their 
members,  respectively,  are  supposed  to  be  governed  in 
their  relations  with  each  other.  In  its  exact  sense  law  is 
a  rule  of  propriety  and  of  conduct  described  by  sover- 
eign power.  Strictly  speaking,  therefore,  as  nations 
have  no  common  superior  they  cannot  be  said  to  be  sub- 
ject to  human  law;  but  there  is,  nevertheless,  a  body  of 
rules  more  or  less  generally  recognized  by  which  nations 
prof  jss  to  regulate  their  own  conduct  toward  each  other 
and  the  conduct  of  their  citizens,  respectively.  Being 
rules  of  propriety  and  of  conduct,  though  not  prescribed 
by  a  superior,  they  are  somewhat  loosely  designated  as 
laws,  and  taken  together  they  form  what  is  called  '  Inter- 
national Law/  and  as  such  are  enforced  by  each  nation 
separately  upon  persons  and  things  within  its  jurisdic- 
tion. This  body  of  rules  is  derived  from  custom  or 
treaty.  From  the  earliest  times  there  must  have  been 
some  sort  of  rule,  tacit  or  expressed,  for  the  intercourse, 
however  small,  which  must  have  existed  between  nations 
and  must  have  begun  with  the  beginnings  of  nations. 
We  find,  accordingly,  in  the  oldest  historical  records, 
mention  of  messengers  or  embassies  sent  by  nation  or 
king  to  another  nation  or  king  and  of  compacts  between 
them.  As  now  existing,  International  Law  is  a  science 
of  which  the  major  part  is  generally  understood  and 
accepted. 

"  There  is  no  penalty  except  the  inevitable  distrust 
engendered  which  injures  the  standing  of  the  nation 
breaking  faith  in  the  negotiations.  Yet  they  are  direct 
and  serious  blows  to  that  good  faith  which  is  the  basis 
of  all  human  intercourse  and  progress.  This  is  a  weak- 
ness inherent  to  International  Law  destitute  as  it  is  of 
a  recognized  means  of  enforcement.  In  spite  of  tin's, 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  263 

however,  states  do  fulfill  their  contracts  as  a  rule,  or  by 
their  laborious  excuses,  in  case  of  violation,  prove  their 
desire  to  be  thought  faith-keeping."  : 

How  It  Grew. 

International  Law,  as  we  know  it  to-day,  is  a  modern 
product.  The  first  glimpses  we  catch  of  it  in  history 
show  it  in  a  very  rudimentary  form.  The  Orient  was 
not  likely  to  be  a  fruitful  field  for  it,  as  the  Asiatic  had 
but  little  regard  for  individual  rights ;  the  Greeks  and 
Romans  made  good  laws  for  themselves  but  were  too 
powerful  and  contemptuous  of  their  neighbors  to  devise 
an  elaborate  code  for  the  guidance  of  their  international 
affairs.  Only  after  the  destruction  of  the  great  ancient 
powers  and  the  rise  of  several  nations  of  nearly  equal 
strength  would  the  intercourse  of  nations  be  between 
equals ;  then  we  should  expect  to  find,  and  do  find  it 
guided  by  established  principles  commending  themselves 
to  reason  and  conscience.  International  Law  is  not 
unchangeable,  but  keeps  pace  with  human  progress,  and 
like  any  other  law,  serves  to  mark  the  advance  of  civil- 
ization. Prisoners  of  war  are  no  longer  put  to  death, 
enslaved,  or  held  for  ransom. 

Holy  Alliance. 

"  During  the  occupation  of  Paris  consequent  on  the 
Battle  of  Waterloo,  the  three  rulers  of  Russia,  Austria 
and  Prussia,  joined  afterwards  by  the  French  king, 
formed  September  26,  1815,  the  'Holy  Alliance,' which 
has  been  regarded  as  a  league  of  absolution  against  the 
rights  and  the  freedom  of  the  nations.  This  famous 
league,  however,  at  its  inception,  appears  to  have  had  no 
definite  object  in  view.  It  was  a  measure  into  which 
the  other  sovereigns  entered  in  order  to  gratify  the 
emperor  Alexander,  whose  romantic  mind,  then  under 

*  David  Dudley  Field. 


264  THE    PASSING   OF    SPAIN    AND 

the  influence  of  Madame  Krudener,  contemplated  a 
golden  age  in  which  the  intercourse  of  nations  should 
be  controlled  by  Christian  principles.  The  parties 
to  the  '  Holy  Alliance '  bound  themselves,  appealing 
to  the  Holy  Trinity,  to  exercise  their  power  according  to 
the  principles  of  religion,  justice  and  humanity  ;  to  offer 
one  another  to  one  another  on  all  occasions,  aid  and 
help;  to  treat  their  subjects  and  soldiers  with  paternal 
feeling,  and  to  regard  their  people  as  members  of  a 
great  Christian  family  whose  guidance  was  entrusted  to 
them  by  God. 

" '  The  sovereigns  each  regarded,'  they  said,  '  as  a 
fundamental  basis,  their  invariable  resolution  never  to 
depart,  either  among  themselves  or  in  their  relations 
with  other  states,  from  the  strict  observance  of  the  law 
of  nations,  principles  which  in  their  application  to  any 
state  of  permanent  place  are  alone  able  to  give  an 
effectual  guaranty  of  the  independence  of  each  govern- 
ment and  the  stability  of  their  general  association.' 
The  unmeaning  nature  of  such  declarations  was  shown 
not  long  afterwards  by  acts  of  interference." 

In  1820  and  1821  revolutions  broke  out  in  rapid  suc- 
cession in  Spain,  Naples  and  Sardinia.  The  alarm 
excited  by  the  revolutionary  spirit  was  the  occasion  of 
convoking  a  congress  at  Troppan  in  Silesia  in  October, 
1820,  which  was  removed  near  the  end  of  the  same  year 
to  Laybach.  Against  the  proposed  intervention  in  the 
affairs  of  Italy  the  British  government  protested  in 
strong  terms,  although  the  existing  ministry  were  not 
averse  to  the  suppression  of  revolutionary  liberalism ; 
while  on  the  other  hand  the  French  government  approved 
openly  of  the  intervention  in  order  to  gratify  the  ultra- 
royalist  party  at  home,  but  secretly  dreaded  the  Austrian 
influence  which  such  a  measure  would  increase.  Aus- 
tria, thus  supported,  sent  an  army  into  the  Peninsula, 
overthrew  the  revolution  almost  without  a  blow  in  the 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  265 

spring  of  1821,  and  brought  back  the  old  absolutism  in 
all  its  rigor. 

Soon  after  this,  in  the  middle  of  1821,  a  royalist  insur- 
rection occurred  in  northern  Spain,  to  which  France  so 
far  extended  aid  as  to  allow  the  insurgents  to  gather 
along  the  borders ;  to  retreat  in  case  of  need  across  the 
line,  and  to  make  the  preparation  of  gathering  arms  and 
money  on  French  soil. 

A  congress  had  been  arranged  to  meet  at  Verona 
when  that  of  Laybach  broke  up.  The  principal  measure 
here  agitated  was  armed  interference  in  the  affairs  of 
Spain,  which,  if  undertaken,  would  naturally  be  the  work 
of  France.  The  British  envoy,  the  Duke  of  Wellington, 
declared  the  refusal  of  his  government  to  participate  in 
any  such  proceeding,  and  also  that  England  would  not 
even  attempt  to  persuade  Spain  to  conform  to  the  views 
of  the  congress.  The  French  envoys,  Montmorency  and 
Chateaubriand,  against  the  express  instructions  of  their 
court,  urged  forward  the  intervention,  which  was  sup- 
ported by  the  other  powers  and  energetically  by  Russia. 
A  French  army  occupied  Spain,  overthrowing  the  con- 
stitution of  Cadiz,  to  which  the  king  had  given  assent, 
and  left  him  "free,"  but  the  country  enslaved. 

"  No  stretch  of  interference  had  gone  so  far  as  this, 
for  Spain  would  have  been  a  settled,  constitutional  gov- 
ernment and  probably  settled  peaceably  unless  the  agita- 
tors had  looked  for  aid  to  foreign  powers."* 

The  real  source  of  action  of  the  "  Holy  Alliance  "  was 
not  in  the  treaty  drawn  by  Czar  Alexander,  but  emanated 
from  congresses  which  were  called  at  different  times  as 
occasion  arose  and  seemed  to  demand  them.  Metternich, 
the  able  diplomat  of  Austria,  made  the  alliance  an  instru- 
ment for  some  of  his  cleverest  work. 

*  Theodore  D.  Woolsey's  "  International  Law." 


266  THE    PASSING   OF    SPAIN    AND 

Origin  of  the  Monroe  Doctrine. 

It  is  one  of  the  ironies  of  fate  that  Monroe,  a  man  of 
less  force  of  character  than  any  of  his  predecessors,  and 
who  did  less  than  they  to  formulate  certain  principles  of 
American  policy,  should,  by  mere  force  of  circumstances, 
be  associated  with  the  principles,  which  have  ever  since 
borne  his  name. 

George  Canning,  minister  of  foreign  affairs  of  Eng- 
land in  1822,  was  anxious  to  secure  the  assistance  of  the 
United  States  to  counteract  the  power  wielded  by  the 
"  Holy  Alliance."  Because  of  this,  and  not  through  any 
motives  of  disinterested  philanthropy,  he  dropped  a  few 
diplomatic  hints  to  the  American  minister  at  the  Eng- 
lish court.  These  bore  fruit  in  the  next  annual  message 
of  President  Monroe. 

Already  in  1791,  1801  and  1804,  the  principles  had 
been  forshadowed  by  the  utterance  of  our  state  depart- 
ment, and  before  venturing  to  take  any  decided  action 
in  the  matter,  Monroe  not  only  laid  it  before  his  own 
cabinet,  made  up  of  eminent  men,  but  corresponded  with 
ex-Presidents  Jefferson  and  Madison.  Thus  it  may  be 
said  that  the  "  Holy  Alliance  "  is  directly  responsible  for 
the  enunciation  of  the  doctrine  that  bears  Monroe's  name. 

Monroe  Asks  Advice. 

Mr.  Canning,  in  his  correspondence  with  Mr.  Rush, 
our  minister  in  England  in  1823,  having  suggested  that 
the  United  States  should  take  decided  ground  against 
the  interference  of  the  "  Holy  Alliance  "  in  South  Amer- 
ica, Mr.  Monroe  sent  the  paper  to  Mr.  Jefferson  asking 
his  advice.  To  this  request  Mr.  Jefferson  answered  as 
follows : 

Jefferson's  View. 

MONTICELLO,   October  24,  1823. 

DKAR  SIR.  —  The  question  presented  by  the  letter  you  have  sent  me  is  the 
most  momentous  which  has  ever  been  offered  to  my  contemplation  since 
that  of  Independence  ;  that  made  us  a  nation  ;  this  sets  our  compass  and 
points  the  course  which  we  are  to  steer  through  the  ocean  of  time  opening 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  267 

on  us.  And  never  could  we  embark  upon  it  under  circumstances  more  aus- 
picious. Our  first  and  fundamental  maxim  should  be,  never  to  entangle 
ourselves  in  the  broils  of  Europe  ;  our  second,  never  to  suffer  Europe  to 
intermeddle  with  cis-Atlantic  affairs.  America,  North  and  South,  has  a  set 
of  interests  distinct  from  those  of  Europe  and  peculiarly  her  own.  She  should 
therefore  have  a  system  of  her  own,  separate  and  apart  from  that  of  Europe. 
While  the  last  is  laboring  to  become  a  domicile  of  despotism,  our  endeavor 
should  surely  be  to  make  our  hemisphere  that  of  freedom. 

One  nation  most  of  all  could  disturb  us  in  this  pursuit  ;  she  now  offers  to 
lend  aid  and  accompany  us  in  it.  By  acceding  to  her  proposition  we  detach 
her  from  the  bands,  bring  her  mighty  weight  into  the  scale  of  free  govern- 
ment and  emancipate  a  continent  at  one  stroke,  which  might  otherwise  linger 
long  in  doubt  and  difficulty.  Great  Britain  is  the  nation  which  can  do  us  the 
most  harm  of  any  one  on  all  the  earth,  and  with  her  on  our  side  we  need  not 
fear  the  whole  world.  With  her  then,  we  should  most  seduously  cherish  a 
cordial  friendship,  and  nothing  would  tend  more  to  knit  our  affections  than 
to  be  fighting  once  more  side  by  side  in  the  same  cause.  Not  that  I  would 
purchase  even  her  amity  at  the  price  of  taking  part  in  her  wars."  — Jefferson 
1o  Monroe. 

Mr.  Madison  being  consulted  at  the  same  time, 
through  Mr.  Jefferson,  answered  as  follows: 

Madison's  Opinion. 

October  30,  1823. 

DEAR  SIR.  —  I  have  just  received  from  Mr.  Jefferson  your  letter  to  him, 
with  the  correspondence  between  Mr.  Canning  and  Mr.  Rush,  sent  for  his 
and  my  perusal  and  our  opinions  on  the  subject  of  it. 

From  the  disclosures  of  Mr.  Canning,  it  appears,  as  was  otherwise  to  be 
inferred,  that  the  success  of  France  against  Spain  would  be  followed  by  an 
attempt  of  the  Holy  Alliance  to  reduce  the  revolutionized  colonies  of  the  lat- 
ter to  their  former  dependence.  The  professions  we  have  made  to  these 
neighbors,  our  sympathies  with  their  liberties  and  independence,  the  deep 
interest  we  have  in  the  most  friendly  relations  with  them,  and  the  conse- 
quences threatened  by  a  command  of  their  resources  by  the  great  powers, 
confederated  against  the  rights  and  reforms  cf  which  we  have  given  so  con- 
spicuous and  persuasive  an  example,  all  unite  in  calling  for  our  efforts  to 
defeat  the  meditated  crusade.  It  is  particularly  fortunate  that  the  policy  of 
Great  Britain,  though  guided  by  calculations  different  from  ours,  has  pre- 
sented a  co-operation  for  an  object  the  same  as  ours.  With  that  co-operation 
we  have  nothing  to  fear  from  the  rest  of  Europe,  and  with  it  the  best  assur- 
ance of  success  to  our  laudable  views.  There  ought  not,  therefore  to  be  any 
backwardness  I  think,  in  meeting  her  in  the  way  she  has  proposed,  keeping 
in  view,  of  course,  the  spirit  and  forms  of  the  Constitution  in  every  step 
taken  in  the  road  to  war,  which  must  be  the  last  step  if  those  short  of  war 
should  be  without  avail.  — Madison  to  Monroe. 

The  "  Doctrine  "  Enunciated. 

"  From  the  seventh  annual  message  of  President  Mon- 
roe, delivered  December  22,  1823,  the  doctrine  called  by 
his  name  was  thus  expressed : 

1  In  the  wars  of  the  European  powers,  in  matters  relating 


268  THE    PASSING    OF    SPAIN    AND 

to  themselves,  we  have  never  taken  any  part,  nor  does  it 
comport  with  our  policy  to  do  so.  It  is  only  when  our 
rights  are  invaded  or  seriously  menaced  that  we  resent 
injuries  or  make  preparation  for  our  defense. 

'With  the  movements  in  this  hemisphere  we  are  of 
necessity  more  immediately  connected,  and  by  causes 
which  must  be  obvious  to  all  enlightened  and  impartial 
observers.  The  political  system  of  the  allied  powers  is 
essentially  different  in  this  respect  from  that  of  America. 
This  difference  proceeds  from  that  which  exists  in  their 
respective  governments ;  and  to  the  defense  of  our  own, 
which  has  been  achieved  by  the  loss  of  so  much  blood 
and  treasure,  and  matured  by  the  wisdom  of  their  most 
enlightened  citizens,  and  under  which  we  have  enjoyed 
unexampled  felicity,  this  whole  nation  is  devoted.  We 
owe  it,  therefore,  to  candor  and  to  the  amicable  relations 
existing  between  the  United  States  and  those  powers,  to 
declare  that  we  should  consider  any  attempt  on  their  part 
to  extend  their  system  to  any  portion  of  this  hemisphere,  as 
dangerous  to  our  peace  and  safety.  With  the  existing 
colonies  or  dependencies  of  any  European  power  we  have 
not  interfered,  and  shall  not  interfere.  But  with  the 
governments  who  have  declared  their  independence  and 
maintained  it,  and  whose  independence  we  have,  on  great 
consideration  and  on  just  principles  acknowledged,  we 
could  not  view  any  interposition  for  the  purpose  of  op- 
pressing them,  or  controlling  in  any  other  manner  their 
destiny,  by  any  European  power,  in  any  other  light  than 
as  the  manifestation  of  an  unfriendly  disposition  toward 
the  United  States.  In  the  war  between  these  new  gov- 
ernments and  Spain,  we  have  adhered  and  shall  continue 
to  adhere  to  this  policy,  provided  no  change  shall  occur 
which,  in  the  judgment  of  the  competent  authorities  of 
this  government,  shall  make  a  corresponding  change  on 
the  part  of  the  United  States  indispensable  to  their 
security.' " 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  269 

A  Policy,  Not  a  Law. 

"  It  is  to  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  declarations  known 
as  the  '  Monroe  Doctrine '  have  never  received  the 
sanction  of  an  act  or  resolution  of  Congress,  nor  have 
they  any  of  that  authority  which  European  governments 
attach  to  a  royal  ordinance.  They  are,  in  fact,  only  the 
declarations  of  an  existing  administration  of  what  its 
own  policy  would  be,  and  what  it  thinks  should  ever  be 
the  policy  of  the  country,  on  a  subject  of  paramount  and 
permanent  interest.  Thus,  at  the  same  session  in  which 
the  message  was  delived,  Mr.  Clay  introduced  the  follow- 
ing resolution :  '  That  the  people  of  these  States  would 
not  see,  without  serious  inquietude,  any  forcible  inter- 
position by  the  allied  powers  of  Europe  in  behalf  of 
Spain,  to  reduce  to  their  former  subjection  those  parts 
of  the  continent  of  America  which  have  proclaimed  and 
established  for  themselves,  respectively,  independent 
governments,  and  which  have  been  solemnly  recognized 
by  the  United  States.'  But  this  resolution  was  never 
brought  up  for  action  or  discussion.  It  is  seen  also,  by 
the  debates  on  the  Panama  mission  and  the  Yucatan 
intervention,  that  Congress  has  never  been  willing  to 
commit  the  nation  to  any  compact  or  pledge  on  this 
subject,  or  to  any  specific  declaration  of  purpose  or 
methods,  beyond  the  general  language  of  the  message." 

Not  Hostile  to  Monarchies. 

"  It  has  sometimes  been  assumed  that  the  '  Monroe 
Doctrine  '  contained  some  declaration  against  any  other 
than  democratic-republican  institutions  on  this  continent, 
however  arising  or  introduced.  The  message  will  be 
searched  in  vain  for  anything  of  the  kind.  We  were 
the  first  to  recognize  the  imperial  authority  of  Dom 
Pedro  in  Brazil,  and  of  Iturbide  in  Mexico;  and  more 
than  half  of  the  northern  continent  was  under  the  scep- 
ters of  Great  Britain  and  Russia ;  and  these  depend- 


270  THE    PASSING    OF    SPAIN. 

encies  would  certainly  be  free  to  adopt  what  institutions 
they  pleased,  in  case  of  successful  rebellion,  or  of  peace- 
ful separation  from  their  parent  States." 

Its  Principles. 

"  As  a  summary  of  this  subject,  it  would  seem  that 
the  following  position  may  be  safely  taken  : 

I.  The  declaration  upon  which  Mr.  Monroe  consulted 
Mr.  Jefferson  and  his  Cabinet  related  to  the  interposition 
of  European  powers  in  the  affairs  of  American  States. 

II.  The    kind  of  interposition  declared    against   was 
that  which  may  be  made  for  the  purpose  of  controlling 
other  political  affairs,  or  of  extending  to  this  hemisphere 
the  system  in  operation  upon  the   continent  of  Europe, 
by  which  the  great  powers  exercise   a  control  over  the 
affairs  of  other  European  States. 

III.  The  declarations  do  not  intimate   any  course  of 
conduct  to  be  pursued  in  case  of  such  interposition,  but 
merely  say  that  they  would  be  '  considered  as  dangerous 
to  our  peace  and  safety/  and  as  '  the  manifestation   of 
an  unfriendly  disposition   towards    the   United    States,' 
which  it  would  be  impossible  for  us  to  '  behold  with  in- 
difference ; '  thus  leaving  the  nation  to  act   at    all  times 
as  its  opinion  of  its  policy  or  duty  might  require. 

IV.  The  declarations  are  only  the  opinion  of  the  ad- 
ministration of  1823,  and  have  acquired  no  legal  force  or 
sanction. 

V.  The   United  States  has  never  made  any  alliance 
with,  or  pledge  to,  any  other  American  State  on  the  sub- 
ject covered  by  the  declaration. 

VI.  The  declaration  respecting  non-colonization  was 
on  a  subject  distinct  from   European  intervention  with 
American  States,  and  related  to  the  acquisition  of  sover- 
eign  title  by  any  European  power,  by  new  and  original 
occupation    or  colonization  thereafter.     Whatever  we  Ti- 
the political  motives  for  resisting  such  colonization,  the 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA. 

principle  of  public  law  upon  which  it  was  placed  was,  that 
the  continent  must  be  considered  as  already  within  the 
occupation  and  jurisdiction  of  independent  civilized 
nations."  * 

Animus  of  the  Doctrine. 

"  The  Monroe  Doctrine,"  however,  was  leveled  not  only 
against  the  "  Holy  Alliance,"  but  also  against  Russia,  for 
claiming  the  title  to  the  territory  on  the  northwestern 
coast  of  the  American  continent,  from  Behring  Straits 
down  to  the  fifty-first  parallel  of  north  latitude. 

Excuses  no  Nation. 

"  This  doctrine  is  simply  a  presidential  declaration  of 
national  policy;  but  as  such,  it  has  a  strong  hold  on  the 
mind  and  heart  of  the  American  people  and  has  always 
seemed  to  our  sister  American  republics  as  a  great  if  not 
their  greatest  bulwark  against  European  interference  with 
their  liberty  and  independence.  Not  a  word,  however, 
does  it  contain  that  justifies  the  belief  that  it  was  intended 
to  relieve  any  American  nation  of  its  duty  to  meet  all  its 
obligations  to  European  powers,  or  to  prevent  such  pow- 
ers from  obtaining  due  satisfaction  for  any  wrong  they 
may  suffer  or  any  injury  they  may  sustain  in  their  inter- 
course with  the  American  people. 

Doctrine  vs.  Intervention. 

"  What  it  does  contain  is  two  plain  statements,  the 
first  one  being  to  the  effect  that  the  European  nations 
must  not  attempt  to  acquire  sovereignty  or  to  extend  their 
monarchical  system  over  any  American  territory  in  ad- 
dition to  that  which  they  already  possess;  and  the  second 
one  being  practically  a  promise  that  the  United  States 
will  not  interfere  with  the  existing  American  colonies  or 
dependencies  of  any  European  power. 

*  Wharton's   "International  Law." 


272  THE    PASSING    OF    SPAIN    AND 

"As  the  second  is  as  clear  a  part  of  the  Monroe  Doc- 
trine as  the  first,  it  would  seem  as  if  Congress  has  exer- 
cised much  wisdom  and  foresight  in  refusing  to  make  it 
law,  for  occasions  might  easily  arise  when  it  would  be 
the  duty  of  the  United  States  to  interfere  in  the  Ameri- 
can colonies  of  European  powers ;  moreover,  the  right 
to  interfere  in  proper  cases  in  the  affairs  of  adjacent 
nations  is  always  too  important  to  forego  or  surrender.* 

"In  the  United  States  and  in  the  other  American 
nations,  the  Monroe  Doctrine  is  generally  understood  to 
be  confined  to  the  principles  laid  down  in  the  first  state- 
ment and  directed  against  the  European  powers.  That 
principle,  however,  is  not  an  article  of  International  Law, 
nor  is  it  even,  as  has  been  stated,  to  be  found  in  the 
municipal  law  of  the  United  States.  Its  only  practical 
value,  therefore,  is  that  it  serves  as  a  notice  to  European 
powers  of  the  specific  grounds  on  which  the  United 
States,  will  exercise  the  right  of  interfering  to  prevent 
them  from  acquiring  or  controlling  any  American  terri- 
tory that  does  not  already  belong  to  them.  As  a  warning, 
consequently,  it  is  timely  and  useful,  and  it  has  the  spe- 
cial and  admirable  merit  of  being  at  once  courteous  and 
frank;  but  it  does  not  give  to  the  United  States  any 
right  to  interfere,  and  it  cannot  be  doubted  that  the 
general  right  of  intervention  would  alone  be  sufficient.''! 

Intervention. 

The  measures  which  one  State  takes  to  prevent  injury 
to  itself,  arising  from  the  political  measures  of  another 
State,  or  growing,  for  some  good  reason,  out  of  the  other 
sovereign's  conduct.  Since  all  States  are  independent, 
the  presumption  is  against  the  right  of  intervention. 
The  principal  legitimate  causes  of  intervention  are  : 

(i)  For  the  purpose  of  preserving  the  balance  of  power ; 

*  Written  before  intervention  in  Cuba, 
f  Bowen's  "  International  Law." 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  2/3 

that  is,  to  prevent  a  State  from  gaining  by  political  means 
or  force  an  accession  of  power  which  would  be  danger- 
ous to  its  neighbors. 

(2)  To  prevent  changes  in  a  form  of  government  that 
would  react  upon  the  powers  interfering.     For  example, 
a  republican  form  of  government  in  Austria  would  be 
distasteful  to  the  adjacent  monarchies.     The  action  of 
the  Holy  Alliance  in  the  application   of  this  principle 
brought  out  the  Monroe  Doctrine. 

(3)  To  promote  the  rights  of   humanity.      In     1827 
Great  Britain  and  France  interfered  to  prevent  Turkey 
from  utterly  crushing  Greece.      In   1877   Russia  made 
war  upon  Turkey,  urging  as  a  reason  the  atrocities  of  the 
Turks  in  Bulgaria.     In  1895,    Russia,   France  and  Ger- 
many intervened  in   a  protest  to  Japan  to  prevent  the 
latter  country  acquiring  territory  in   China  where   she 
would  be  a  constant  menace  to  Pekin.     In    1897,   Great 
Britain,   Austria,   France,    Italy,   Russia    and    Germany 
intervened    to  prevent  Turkey  from  sending  reinforce- 
ments to  the   island  of  Crete  in  which  an  insurrection 
was  raging  and  landed  marines  to  preserve  order  while 
they  peacefully  blockaded  the  harbor  of  Canea  to  pre- 
vent Greek  sympathizers  from  entering  the  harbor  with 
supplies  for  the  insurgents.     Later,  at  the  end  of  the 
Turko-Grecian  war  that  followed,  they  intervened  to  pre- 
serve to  Greece  the  territory  captured  from  it  by  the 
Turks  and  to  abate  the  Turkish  demand  for  money  in- 
demnity.    A   still   later  example  is  our  interference  in 
Cuban  affairs. 

War  Growing  Less  Barbarous. 

The  Crimean  war  was  conducted  on  principles  which 
were  a  marked  advance  over  previous  methods.  It  was 
closed  by  the  "  Declaration  of  Paris,"  to  the  principles  of 
which  all  the  nations  of  importance  except  the  United 
States,  Spain  and  Mexico  have  since  agreed.  The  United 
18 


274  THE    PASSING   OF    SPAIN    AND 

States  has  often  accepted  all  of  it  but  the  clause  relating 
to  privateering,  and  her  objection  to  that  was  not  that  she 
wished  to  send  out  privateers,  but  that  she  was  willing  to 
go  even  farther  and  exempt  private  property  on  the  high 
seas  wholly  from  capture.  The  United  States  has  not 
sent  out  a  privateer  in  sixty  years,  and  with  the  Columbia, 
Minneapolis,  St.  Louis,  St.  Paul,  Yale,  Harvard  and  other 
fleet  cruisers  that  could  be  made  commerce  destroyers, 
there  is  not  much  inducement  for  her  to  do  so.  Further, 
commerce  destroying  would  never  put  an  end  to  any  war. 
It  serves  only  to  annoy  and  irritate  the  enemy  without 
crushing  his  military  power. 

Declaration  of  Paris,  1856. 

"  Considering  that  maritime  law  in  time  of  war  has 
long  been  the  subject  of  deplorable  disputes ;  that  the 
uncertainly  of  the  law  and  of  the  duties  in  such  a  matter 
gives  rise  to  differences  of  opinion  between  neutrals  and 
belligerents  which  may  occasion  serious  difficulties,  and 
even  conflicts;  that  it  is,  consequently,  advantageous  to 
establish  a  uniform  doctrine  on  so  important  a  point; 
and  that  the  plenipotentiaries  assembled  in  Congress  at 
Paris  cannot  better  respond  to  the  intentions  by  which 
their  governments  are  animated,  than  by  seeking  to  intro- 
duce into  international  relations  fixed  principles  in  this 
respect  —  the  above-mentioned  plenipotentiaries,  being 
duly  authorized,  have  adopted  the  following  solemn 
declaration : 

1.  Privateering  is  and  remains  abolished. 

2.  The  neutral  flag  covers  enemy's   goods    with    the 
exception  of  contraband  of  war. 

3.  Neutral  goods,  with  the  exception  of  contraband  of 
war,  are  not  liable  to  capture  under  an  enemy's  flag. 

4.  Blockades,  in  order  to  be  binding,  must  be  effective 
—  that  is  to  say,  maintained  by  a  force  sufficient  really 
to  prevent  access  to  the  coast. 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  275 

Privateering.  —  A  vessel  owned  by  a  citizen  of  the 
United  States  and  not  by  the  Government  itself,  armed 
and  acting  under  a  commission  called  "  Letters  of  Marque  " 
empowering  it  to  capture  Spanish  vessels,  would  be  a 
privateer.  Private  citizens  could  thus  embark  in  war 
simply  as  a  speculation.  In  1812,  American  privateers 
inflicted  great  damage  upon  English  commerce  ;  but  the 
practice  is  coming  into  disrepute  and  is  now  thought 
to  be  little  better  than  legalized  piracy. 

Neutral  Flag.  —  Goods  belonging  to  a  citizen  of  Spain, 
shipped  in  a  vesssel  belonging  to  a  neutral  nation,  would 
not  be  liable  to  capture  by  the  United  States  unless  the 
goods  themselves  were  contraband. 

Neutral  Goods.  —  Goods  belonging  to  the  citizens  of  a 
neutral  nation,  shipped  in  a  Spanish  vessel,  would  not  be 
liable  to  capture  by  the  United  States  if  not  contraband. , 

Contraband.  —  Articles  "contraband  of  war"  are,  in 
general,  those  which  relate  directly  to  the  carrying  on 
of  war.  To  make  them  liable  to  capture  two  facts  must 
be  proved :  first,  their  contraband  character ;  second, 
their  hostile  destination.  As  to  what  articles  are  in 
themselves  contrabrand  there  is  as  yet  no  general  agree- 
ment, belligerents  striving  to  stretch  their  war  rights  and 
neutrals  desiring  to  extend  their  trade  rights.  The  neu- 
tral State  is  not  bound  to  protect  its  subjects  from  trading 
in  contraband  articles ;  that  burden  lies  on  the  shoulders 
of  the  belligerent."* 

Blockade  Defined. 

"The  act  of  shutting  out  all  trade  by  sea  with  cer- 
tain specified  ports  or  coasts  of  one  belligerent  by  another." 

"  A  neutral  has  a  right  to  demand  that  these  three 
essentials  be  observed : 

1.  Due  notification  must  be  given. 

2.  The  blockade  must  be  effective. 


*Woolsey's  "International  Law." 


276  THE    PASSING    OF    STAIN    AND 

3.  There  must  be  an  actual  attempt  to  evade  it  or 
break  through." 

"Notification? — This  may  be  given  in  different  ways; 
by  diplomatic  announcement  to  all  neutral  powers ;  by  a 
warning  to  the  blockade  runner  inscribed  upon  the  regis- 
ter of  the  ship  trying  to  enter. 

44  Effective" —  The  amount  of  force  necessary  to  make 
a  blockade  legal  and  effective  is  somewhat  indefinite. 
It  does  not  mean  that  occasional  evasions  of  the  blockade 
will  vitiate  it.  It  is  enough  that  there  is  great  risk  of 
capture  so  as  to  make  blockade  running  dangerous. 

"Breach  of  Blockade.  —  There  must  actually  appear 
an  attempt  to  break  the  blockade  after  it  has  been  an- 
nounced and  made  effective.  The  penalty  of  breach  of 
blockade  is  confiscation  of  the  ship,  first,  and  then  of  the 
cargo,  unless  it  can  be  shown  that  the  cargo  was 
not  concerned  in  the  act  of  the  ship.  No  punishment 
can  be  visited  upon  the  crews  of  the  blockade  runners."* 

Secretary  Seward's  Position. 

Secretary  Seward  said,  in  answer  to  questions  con- 
cerning the  blockade  of  the  Southern  ports  : 

44 1.  That  the  blockade  will  be  strictly  enforced  upon  the 
principles  recognized  by  the  law  of  nations. 

2.  That  armed  vessels  of  neutral  States  will  have  the 
right  to  enter  and  depart  from  interdicted  ports. 

3.  That  merchant  vessels  in  port  at  the  time  when  the 
blockade  took   effect  will   be  allowed  a  reasonable  time 
for  their  departure. 

4.  The    Government   cannot   consent   that   emigrant 
vessels  shall  enter  the  interdicted  ports." 

44  Temporary  fortuitous  absence  of  a  blockading  force, 
by  which  occasional  blockade  runners  slip  in,  does  not 
itself  break  up  the  blockade." 

*Woolsey's  "International  Law." 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  277 

American  Practice. 

The  following  extracts  from  Wharton's  "  International 
Law  Digest"  show  what  is  the  practice  of  the  United 
States : 

"  The  carrying  of  letters  or  passengers  to  blockaded 
ports  by  neutral  war  vessels,  entering  by  courtesy  therein, 
is  an  infraction  of  neutrality.  A  vessel  sailing  ignorantly 
for  a  blockaded  port  is  not  liable  to  condemnation  under 
the  law  of  nations.  No  neutral  can,  after  knowledge  of 
the  blockade,  lawfully  enter  or  attempt  to  enter  the 
blockaded  port;  and  to  do  so  would  be  a  violation 
of  neutral  character  which,  according  to  established 
usages,  would  subject  the  party  engaged  therein  to  the 
penalty  of  confiscation. 

"  The  approach  of  a  vessel  to  the  mouth  of  a 
blockaded  port  for  inquiry,  the  blockading  having  been 
generally  known,  is  itself  a  breach  of  the  blockade  and 
subjects  both  vessel  and  cargo  to  condemnation. 

"  The  liability  of  a  vessel  to  capture  and  condemnation 
for  breach  of  blockade  ceases  at  the  end  of  her  return 
voyage. 

"  Thus  it  has  ever  been  maintained  by  the  United 
States  that  a  proclamation  of  ideal  blockade  of  an 
extensive  coast,  not  supported  by  the  actual  presence  of 
a  naval  power  competent  to  enforce  its  simultaneous, 
constant  and  effective  operations  on  every  point  of  such 
coasts,  is  illegal  throughout  its  whole  extent,  even  for  the 
ports  which  may  be  in  actual  blockade;  otherwise  every 
capture  made  under  a  notified  blockade  would  be  legal 
because  the  capture  itself  would  be  proof  of  the  block- 
ading force.  This  is,  in  general  terms,  one  of  the 
fundamental  rules  of  the  law  of  blockade  as  professed 
and  practiced  by  the  government  of  the  United  States."  — 
Marshall,  Secretary  of  State,  1800. 


278  THE    PASSING   OF   SPAIN    AND 

A  Recognized  Right. 

"  The  right  to  blockade  an  enemy's  port  with  a  compe- 
tent force  is  a  right  secured  to  every  belligerent  by  the 
law  of  nations.  A  belligerent  may  blockade  the  port  of 
his  enemy,  but  this  blockade  does  not,  according  to 
modern  usage,  extend  to  a  neutral  vessel  found  in  port 
nor  prevent  her  from  coming  out  with  a  cargo  which 
was  on  board  when  the  blockade  was  instituted. 

"  To  justify  the  exercise  of  the  right  of  blockade  and 
legalize  the  capture  of  a  neutral  vessel  for  violating  it,  a 
state  of  actual  war  must  exist  and  the  neutrals  must  have 
knowledge  or  notice  that  it  is  the  intention  of  one 
belligerent  to  blockade  the  ports  of  the  other." 

"  In  numerous  treaties  negotiated  by  the  United  States 
it  is  provided  that  notwithstanding  a  diplomatic  general 
notice  of  blockade,  a  neutral  vessel  cannot  be  con- 
demned for  blockade  running  unless  she  has  notice  en 
route  that  the  place  in  question  is  blockaded." 

A  Declaration  of  Blockade. 

A  PROCLAMATION. 

"  Whereas,  by  a  joint  resolution  passed  by  the  Con- 
gress and  approved  April  20,  1898,  and  communicated  to 
the  government  of  Spain,  it  was  demanded  that  said 
government  at  once  relinquish  its  authority  and  gov- 
ernment in  the  island  of  Cuba  and  withdraw  its  land  and 
naval  forces  from  Cuba  and  Cuban  waters,  and  the 
President  of  the  United  States  was  directed  and  empow- 
ered to  use  the  entire  land  and  naval  forces  of  the 
United  States  and  to  call  into  the  actual  service  of  the 
United  States  the  militia  of  the  several  States  to  such 
extent  as  might  be  necessary  to  carry  said  resolution  into 
effect ; 

Whereas,  in  carrying  into  effect  said  resolution,  the 
President  of  the  United  States  deems  it  necessary  to  set 
on  foot  and  maintain  a  blockade  of  the  north  coast  of 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  279 

Cuba,  including  all  the  ports  on  said  coast  between  Car- 
denas and  Bahia  Honda,  and  the  port  of  Cienfuegos  on 
the  south  coast  of  Cuba; 

Now,  therefore,  I.  William  McKinley,  President  of 
the  United  States,  in  order  to  enforce  the  said  resolution, 
do  hereby  declare  and  proclaim  that  the  United  States 
of  America  have  instituted  and  will  maintain  a  blockade 
of  the  north  coast  of  Cuba,  including  ports  on  said  coast 
between  Cardenas  and  Bahia  Honda  and  the  port  of 
Cienfuegos,  on  the  south  coast  of  Cuba  aforesaid,  in 
pursuance  of  the  laws  of  the  United  States  and  the  law 
of  nations  applicable  in  such  cases.  An  efficient  force  will 
be  posted,  so  as  to  prevent  the  entrance  and  exit  of  vessels 
from  the  ports  aforesaid.  Any  neutral  vessel  approaching 
any  of  said  ports  or  attempting  to  leave  the  same  without 
notice  or  knowledge  of  the  establishment  of  such  blockade 
will  be  duly  warned  by  the  commander  of  the  blockading 
forces,  who  will  indorse  on  her  register  the  fact  and  the  date 
of  such  warning  and  where  such  indorsement  was  made  ; 
and  if  the  same  vessel  shall  again  attempt  to  enter  any 
blockaded  port,  she  will  be  captured  and  sent  to  the  near- 
est convenient  port  for  such  proceedings  against  her  and 
her  cargo  as  may  be  deemed  advisable. 

Neutral  vessels  lying  in  any  of  said  ports  at  the  time 
of  the  establishment  of  such  blockade,  will  be  allowed 
thirty  days  to  issue  therefrom. 

In  witness  whereof  I  have  hereunto  set  my  hand  and 
caused  the  seal  of  the  United  States  to  be  affixed.  Done 
at  the  city  of  Washington  this  22nd  day  of  April,  A.  D. 
1898,  and  of  the  independence  of  the  United  States, 
the  one-hundred  and  twenty-second. 

By  the  President:  WILLIAM  McKiNLEY. 

JOHN  SHERMAN,  Secretary  of  State." 

Pacific  Blockades. 

"  Since  the  beginning  of  the  present  century,  what  is 
called  pacific  blockades  have  been  not  infrequently  used 


28O  THE    PASSING    OF    SPAIN    AND 

as  a  means  of  constraint  short  of  war.  The  first  instance 
occurred  in  1827,  when  the  coasts  of  Greece  were  block- 
aded by  the  English,  French  and  Russian  squadrons, 
while  the  three  powers  still  professed  to  be  at  peace  with 
Turkey.  Other  light  blockades  followed  in  rapid  suc- 
cession during  the  next  few  years.  The  Tagus  was 
blockaded  by  France  in  1831,  New  Granada  by  England 
in  1836,  Mexico  by  France  in  1838,  and  La  Plata  from 
1838  to  1840  by  France,  and  from  1845  to  1848  by  France 
and  England;  the  Greek  ports  were  blockaded  by  Eng- 
land in  1850,  and  Rio  de  Janeiro  by  the  same  power  in 
1862.  Since  the  last  mentioned  year  no  other  instance 
occurred  until  1884,  when  France  blockaded  a  portion 
of  the  coast  of  Formosa.  Finally,  in  1886,  Greece  was 
blockaded  by  the  fleets  of  Great  Britain,  Austria,  Ger- 
many, Italy  and  Russia.  Grecian  forces  in  the  Island  of 
Crete  were  blockaded  by  the  powers  prior  to  the  Turko- 
Grecian  war. 

"  The  manner  in  which  these  blockades  have  been  car- 
ried out  has  varied  greatly.  During  the  blockade  of 
Mexico  by  France  in  1838,  not  only  were  Mexican  ships 
held  liable  to  capture,  but  vessels  belonging  to  third 
powers  were  seized  and  brought  in  for  condemnation.  In 
the  other  early  instances  of  pacific  blockades  the  vessels 
both  of  the  States  operated  against  and  of  other  powers 
were  sequestrated,  and  were  restored  at  the  termination 
of  the  blockade,  no  compensation  being  given  to  foreign 
ships  for  loss  of  time  and  expenses."  * 

INSTRUCTIONS  FOR  THE  GOVERNMENT  OF  ARMIES  OF  THE 

UNITED  STATES  IN  THE   FIELD. 
Martial  Law. 

Martial  Law  in  a  hostile  country  consists  in  the  suspen- 
sion by  the  occupying  military  authority  of  the  criminal 
and  civil  law,  and  of  the  domestic  administration  and 

*"  International  Law,"  by  W.  E.  Hall,  page  386. 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  281 

government  of  the  place  or  territory,  and  in  the  substitu- 
tion of  military  rule  and  force  for  the  same  as  well  as  in 
the  dictation  of  general  Laws  as  far  as  military  necessity 
requires  this  suspension,  substitution  or  dictation.  The 
commander  of  the  force  may  proclaim  that  the  adminis- 
tration of  all  civil  and  penal  law  shall  continue  both 
wholly  or  in  part,  as  in  times  of  peace,  unless  otherwise 
ordered  by  the  military  authority. 

All  civil  and  penal  law  shall  continue  to  take  its  usual 
course  in  the  enemy's  places  and  territories  under  Mar- 
tial Law,  unless  interrupted  or  stopped  by  order  of  the 
occupying  military  power ;  but  all  functions  of  the  hos- 
tile government  —  legislative,  executive  and  administra- 
tive—  whether  of  a  general,  provisional  or  local  character, 
cease  under  Martial  Law  or  continue  only  with  the  sanc- 
tion, or  if  deemed  necessary,  the  participation  of  the  oc- 
cupier or  invader. 

The  functions  of  ambassadors,  ministers  or  other  dip- 
lomatic agents  accredited  a  neutral  power  to  the  hostile 
government,  cease  so  far  as  regards  the  displaced  govern- 
ment; but  the  conquering  or  occupying  power  usually 
recognizes  them  as  temporarily  accredited  to  itself. 

Martial  Law  affects  chiefly  the  police  and  collection 
of  public  revenue,  as  taxes  chiefly  imposed  on  the  expelled 
government  or  on  the  individual,  and  refers  mainly  to 
the  support  and  efficiency  of  the  army,  its  safety  and  the 
safety  of  its  operations. 

Law  of  War. 

The  law  of  war  not  only  disclaims  all  cruelty  and  bad 
faith  concerning  engagements  concluded  with  the  enemy 
during  the  war,  but  also  the  breaking  of  stipulations 
solemnly  contracted  by  the  belligerents  in  time  of  peace 
and  avowedly  intended  to  remain  in  force  in  case  of  war 
between  the  contracting  powers. 

It  disclaims  all  extortions  and  other  transactions  for 


282  THE    PASSING    OF    SPAIN    AND 

individual  gain,  all  acts  of  private  revenge  or  connivance 
at  such  acts.  Offenses  to  the  contrary  shall  be  severely 
punished,  and  especially  so  if  committed  by  officers. 

Whenever  feasible,  Martial  Law  is  carried  out  in  case 
of  individual  offences  by  Military  Courts;  but  sentence 
of  death  will  be  executed  only  with  the  approval  of  the 
chief  executive  (president),  provided  the  urgency  of  the 
case  does  not  require  a  speedier  execution,  and  then  only 
with  the  approval  of  the  chief-commander. 

Things  Forbidden. 

Military  necessity  does  not  admit  of  cruelty ;  that  is, 
the  infliction  of  suffering  for  the  sake  of  suffering  or  for 
revenge,  nor  of  maiming  or  wounding  except  in  fight  nor 
of  torture  to  extort  confessions.  It  does  not  admit  of  the 
use  of  poison  in  any  way  nor  of  the  wanton  devastation 
of  a  district.  It  admits  of  deception,  but  disclaims  acts 
of  perfidy,  and  the  general  military  necessity  does  not 
include  any  acts  of  hostility  which  makes  the  return  of 
peace  unnecessarily  difficult.  The  use  of  poison  in  any 
manner,  be  it  to  poison  wells,  food  or  arms,  is  wholly 
excluded  from  modern  warfare.  He  that  uses  it  puts 
himself  out  of  the  pale  of  the  law  and  usages  of  war. 

Returning  Non-combatants. 

When  the  commander  of  a  besieged  place  expels  the 
non-combatants  in  order  to  lessen  the  number  of  those 
who  consume  his  stock  of  provisions,  it  is  lawful,  though 
an  extreme  measure,  to  drive  them  back  so  as  to  hasten 
the  surrender. 

Notice  of  Bombardment. 

Commanders,  wherever  admissible,  inform  the  enemy 
of  their  intention  to  bombard  a  place,  so  that  the  non- 
combatants,  and  especially  the  women  and  children,  may 
be  removed  before  the  bombardment  commences.  But 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  283 

it  is  no  infraction  of  the  common  law  of  war  to  omit  thus 
to  inform  the  enemy,  Surprise  may  be  a  necessity. 

The  more  vigorously  wars  are  pursued  the  better  it  is 
for  humanity.  Sharp  wars  are  brief. 

Spoils  of  War. 

A  victorious  army  appropriates  all  public  money, 
seizes  all  public  moveable  property  until  further  directed 
by  its  government,  and  sequesters  for  its  own  benefit  or 
that  of  its  government  all  the  revenues  of  real  property 
belonging  to  the  hostile  government  or  nation.  The 
title  of  such  real  property  remains  in  abeyance  during 
military  occupation  and  until  the  conquest  is  made 
complete. 

It  is  no  longer  considered  lawful  —  on  the  contrary  it 
it  is  held  to  be  a  serious  breach  of  the  law  of  war  —  to 
force  a  subject  of  the  enemy  into  the  service  of  the  vic- 
torious government,  except  the  latter  should  proclaim, 
after  a  fair  and  complete  conquest  of  the  hostile  country 
or  district,  that  it  is  resolved  to  keep  the  country,  district 
or  place  permanently  as  its  own  and  make  it  a  portion  of 
its  own  country. 

Preservation  of  Order. 

The  United  States  acknowledge  and  protect  in  hostile 
countries  occupied  by  them,  religion  and  morality; 
strictly  private  property ;  the  persons  of  the  inhabitants, 
especially  those  of  women ;  and  the  sacredness  of  domestic 
relations.  Offenses  to  the  contrary  shall  be  rigorously 
punished. 

This  rule  does  not  interfere  with  the  riGfht  of  the  vie- 

o 

torious  individual  to  tax  the  people  or  their  property,  to 
levy  taxed  loans,  to  billet  soldiers  or  to  appropriate  prop- 
erty, especially  houses,  land,  boats  or  ships,  and  churches 
for  temporary  and  military  uses. 


284  THE    PASSING    OF    SI' A IX    AND 

Private  Property. 

Private  property,  unless  forfeited  by  crimes  or  by 
offenses  of  the  owner,  can  be  seized  only  by  way  of  mili- 
tary necessity  for  the  support  or  other  benefit  of  the  army 
of  the  United  States.  If  the  owner  has  not  fled,  the 
commanding  officer  will  cause  receipts  to  be  given  which 
may  serve  the  spoliated  owner  to  obtain  indemnity. 

Native  Civil  Officers. 

The  salaries  of  civil  officers  of  the  hostile  government 
who  remain  in  the  invaded  territory  and  continue  the 
work  of  their  offices,  and  can  continue  it  according  to  the 
circumstances  arising  out  of  the  war — such  as  judges, 
administrative  and  police  officers,  officers  of  city  or  com- 
munal government  —  are  paid  from  the  public  revenue  in 
the  invaded  territory,  until  the  military  government  has 
reason  wholly  or  partially  to  discontinue  it.  Salaries  or 
incomes  connected  with  purely  honorary  titles  are  always 
stopped. 

Violence  Punished. 

All  wanton  violence  committed  against  persons  in  the 
invaded  country,  all  destruction  of  property  not  com- 
manded by  the  authorized  officers,  all  robbery,  all  pillage 
or  sacking,  even  after  taking  a  place  by  main  force,  all 
rape,  wounding,  maiming  or  killing  of  such  inhabitants 
are  prohibited  under  the  penalty  of  death  or  such  other 
severe  punishment  as  may  seem  adequate  for  the  gravity 
of  the  offense. 

Any  soldier,  officer  or  private,  in  the  act  of  committing 
such  violence  and  disobeying  a  superior  ordering  him  to 
abstain  from  it,  may  be  lawfully  killed  on  the  spot  by 
such  superior.  Whoever  intentionally  inflicts  additional 
wounds  on  an  enemy  already  wholly  disabled,  or  kills 
such  an  enemy,  or  who  orders  or  encourages  soldiers  to 
do  so,  shall  suffer  death  if  duly  convicted,  whether  he  be- 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  285 

longs  to  the  army  of  the  United  States  or  is  an  enemy 
captured  after  having  committed  his  misdeed. 

Private  Property  of  Prisoners. 

Money  and  other  valuables  on  the  person  of  a  prisoner, 
such  as  watches  and  jewelry,  as  well  as  extra  clothing, 
are  regarded  by  the  American  army  as  the  private  prop- 
erty of  the  prisoner,  and  the  appropriation  of  such 
valuables  or  money  is  considered  dishonorable  and  is 
prohibited. 

Nevertheless,  if  large  sums  are  found  upon  the  persons 
of  prisoners,  or  in  their  possession,  they  shall  be  taken 
from  them  and  the  surplus,  after  providing  for  their  own 
support,  appropriated  for  the  use  of  the  army  under  the 
direction  of  the  commander,  unless  otherwise  ordered  by 
the  government.  Nor  can  prisoners  claim  as  private 
property  large  sums  found  and  captured  in  their  train, 
although  they  have  been  placed  in  the  private  luggage  of 
the  prisoner. 

Private  Gain. 

Neither  officers  nor  soldiers  are  allowed  to  make  use 
of  their  position  or  power  in  the  hostile  country  for 
private  gain,  not  even  for  commercial  transactions  other- 
wise legitimate.  Offenses  to  the  contrary  committed  by 
commissioned  officers  will  be  punished  by  cashiering  and 
such  other  punishment  as  the  nature  of  the  offense  may 
require ;  if  by  soldiers,  they  shall  be  punished  according 
to  the  nature  of  the  offense. 

Crime. 

Crime,  punishable  by  all  penal  codes,  such  as  arson, 
murder,  maiming,  assault,  highway  robbery,  theft,  burg- 
lary, fraud,  forging,  and  rape,  if  committed  by  an  Ameri- 
can soldier  in  a  hostile  country  against  its  inhabitants,  is 
not  only  punishable  as  at  home,  but  in  all  cases  in  which 


286  THE    PASSING    OF    SPAIN    AND 

death  is  not  inflicted  the  severer  punishment  shall  be 
preferred. 

Deserters. 

Deserters  from  the  American  army  having  entered  the 
service  of  the  enemy,  suffer  death  if  they  fall  again  into 
the  hands  of  the  United  States,  whether  by  capture  or 
being  delivered  up  to  the  American  army ;  and  if  a 
deserter  from  the  enemy,  having  taken  service  in  the  army 
of  the  United  States,  is  captured  by  the  enemy  and 
punished  by  them  with  death  or  otherwise,  it  is  not  a 
breach  against  the  law  and  usages  of  war  requiring 
redress  or  retaliation. 

Hospital  Corps. 

The  enemy's  chaplains,  officers  of  the  medical  staff, 
apothecaries,  hospital  nurses  and  servants,  if  they  fall  into 
the  hands  of  the  American  army,  are  not  prisoners  of 
war  unless  the  commander  has  reasons  to  retain  them. 
In  this  latter  case,  or  if  at  their  own  desire  they  are 
allowed  to  remain  with  their  captured  companions,  they 
are  treated  as  prisoners  of  war,  and  may  be  exchanged  if 
the  commander  sees  fit. 

Giving  of  Quarter. 

All  troops  of  the  enemy  known  or  discovered  to  give  no 
quarter  in  general  or  to  any  portion  of  the  army,  receive 
none. 

Troops  who  fight  in  the  uniform  of  their  enemy  with- 
out a  plain,  striking  and  uniform  mark  of  distinction  of 
their  own,  can  expect  no  quarter. 

The  use  of  the  enemy's  national  standard,  flag  or  other 
emblem  of  nationality,  for  the  purpose  of  deceiving  the 
enemy  in  battle,  is  an  act  of  perfidy  by  which  they  lose 
all  claim  to  the  protection  of  the  laws  of  war. 

Outposts,  sentinels  and  pickets  are  not  to  be  fired  upon 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  287 

except  to  drive  them  in  or  when  a  positive  order,  special 
or  general,  has  been  issued  to  that  effect. 

Prisoners. 

All  officers  when  captured  must  surrender  their  side- 
arms  to  the  captor.  They  may  be  restored  to  the  pris- 
oner in  marked  cases  by  the  commander  to  signalize 
admiration  of  his  distinguished  bravery  or  approbation 
of  his  humane  treatment  of  prisoners  before  his  capture. 
The  captured  officer  to  whom  they  may  be  restored  can- 
not wear  them  during  captivity. 

Exchanges  of  prisoners  take  place  —  number  for  num- 
ber, rank  for  rank,  wounded  for  wounded,  with  added 
condition  for  added  condition  —  such,  for  instance,  as  not 
to  serve  for  a  certain  period. 

A  prisoner  of  war  is  in  honor  bound  truly  to  state  to 
the  captor  his  rank;  and  he  is  not  to  assume  a  lower 
rank  than  belongs  to  him  in  order  to  cause  a  more 
advantageous  exchange,  nor  a  higher  rank  for  the  pur- 
pose of  obtaining  better  treatment. 

A  prisoner  of  war  who  escapes  may  be  shot  or  other- 
wise killed  in  his  flight,  but  neither  death  nor  any  other 
punishment  shall  be  inflicted  upon  him  simply  for  his 
attempt  to  escape,  which  the  law  of  war  does  not  con- 
sider a  crime.  Stricter  means  of  security  shall  be  used 
after  an  unsuccessful  attempt  at  escape. 

If,  however,  a  conspiracy  is  discovered,  the  purpose  of 
which  is  a  united  and  general  escape,  the  conspirators 
may  be  rigorously  punished,  even  with  death.  A  capital 
punishment  may  also  be  inflicted  upon  prisoners  of  war 
discovered  to  have  plotted  rebellion  against  the  authori- 
ties of  the  captors,  whether  in  union  with  fellow-prisoners 
or  other  persons. 

If  prisoners  of  war,  having  given  no  pledge  nor  made 
any  promise  on  their  honor,  forcibly  or  otherwise  escape 
and  are  captured  again  in  battle  after  having  rejoined 


288  THE    PASSING    OF    SPAIN    AND 

their  own  army,  they  shall  not  be  punished  for  their 
escape,  but  shall  be  treated  as  simple  prisoners  of  war, 
although  they  will  be  subject  to  stricter  confinement. 

Bushwhacking. 

Men,  or  squads  of  men,  who  commit  hostilities,  whether 
by  fighting  or  inroads  for  destruction  or  plunder,  or  by 
raids  of  any  kind,  without  commission,  without  being 
part  and  portion  of  the  organized  hostile  army  and  with- 
out sharing  continuously  in  the  war,  but  who  do  so  with 
intermitting  returns  to  their  homes  and  avocations,  or 
with  the  occasional  assumption  of  the  semblance  of 
peaceful  pursuits,  divesting  themselves  of  the  character 
and  appearance  of  soldiers  —  such  men,  or  squads  of  men, 
are  not  public  enemies,  and  therefore  if  captured  are  not 
entitled  to  the  privileges  of  prisoners  of  war,  but  shall  be 
treated  summarily  as  highway  robbers  or  pirates. 

Armed  prowlers,  by  whatever  names  they  may  be 
called,  or  persons  of  the  enemy's  territory,  who  steal 
within  the  lines  of  the  hostile  army,  for  the  purpose  of 
robbing,  killing,  or  of  destroying  bridges,  roads,  or  canals, 
or  of  robbing  or  destroying  the  mail,  or  of  cutting  tele- 
graph wires,  are  not  entitled  to  the  privileges  of  the  pris- 
oner of  war. 

Scouts  and  Spies. 

Scouts  or  single  soldiers,  if  disguised  in  the  dress  of 
the  country  or  in  the  uniform  of  the  army  hostile  to  their 
own,  employed  in  obtaining  information,  if  found  within 
or  lurking  about  the  lines  of  the  captors,  are  treated  as 
spies  and  suffer  death. 

A  spy  is  a  person  who  secretly,  in  disguise  or  under 
false  pretense,  seeks  information  with  the  intention  of 
communicating  it  to  the  enemy. 

The  spy  is  punishable  with  death  by  hanging  by  the 
neck,  whether  or  not  he  succeeds  in  obtaining  the  infor- 
mation or  in  conveying  it  to  the  enemy. 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  289 

A  messenger  carrying  written  dispatches  or  verbal 
messages  from  one  portion  of  the  army,  or  from  a  besieged 
place,  to  another  portion  of  the  same  army,  or  its  govern- 
ment, if  armed,  and  in  the  uniform  of  his  army,  and  if 
captured  while  doing  so,  in  the  territory  occupied  by  the 
enemy,  is  treated  by  the  captor  as  a  prisoner  of  war.  If 
not  in  uniform,  nor  a  soldier,  the  circumstances  con- 
nected with  his  capture  must  determine  the  disposition 
that  shall  be  made  of  him. 

A  successful  spy  or  war-traitor,  safely  returned  to  his 
own  army,  and  afterwards  captured  as  an  enemy,  is  not 
subject  to  punishment  for  his  acts  as  a  spy  or  war-traitor, 
but  he  may  be  held  in  closer  custody  as  a  person  individ- 
ually dangerous. 

Acts  of  Citizens. 

If  a  citizen  of  the  United  States  obtains  information 
in  a  legitimate  manner,  and  betrays  it  to  the  enemy,  be 
he  a  military  or  civil  officer,  or  a  private  citizen,  he 
shall  suffer  death. 

No  person  having  been  forced  by  the  enemy  to  serve 
as  guide  is  punishable  for  having  done  so. 

All  unauthorized  or  secret  communication  with  the 
enemy  is  considered  treasonable  by  the  law  of  war. 

Foreign  residents  in  an  invaded  or  occupied  territory, 
or  foreign  visitors  in  the  same,  can  claim  no  immunity  from 
this  law.  They  may  communicate  with  foreign  parts,  or 
with  the  inhabitants  of  the  hostile  country,  so  far  as  the 
military  authority  permits,  but  no  further.  Instant  expul- 
sion from  the  occupied  territory  would  be  the  very  least 
punishment  for  the  infraction  of  this  rule. 

Guides. 

If  a  citizen  of  a  hostile  and  invaded  district  voluntarily 
serves  as  a  guide  to  the  enemy,  or  offers  to  do  so,  he  is 
deemed  a  war-traitor,  and  shall  suffer  death. 

A  citizen  serving  voluntarily  as  a  guide  against  his 

19 


290  THE    PASSING    OF    SPAIN    AND 

own   country  commits   treason,  and   will  be  dealt  with 
according  to  the  law  of  his  country. 

Guides,  when  it  is  clearly  proved  that  they  have  mis- 
led intentionally,  may  be  put  to  death. 

War-Rebels  and  War-Traitors. 

War-rebels  are  persons  within  an  occupied  territory 
who  rise  in  arms  against  the  occupying  or  conquering 
army,  or  against  the  authorities  established  by  the  same. 
If  captured,  they  may  suffer  death,  whether  they  rise 
singly,  in  small  or  large  bands,  and  whether  called  upon 
to  do  so  by  their  own,  but  expelled,  government  or  not. 
They  are  not  prisoners  of  war ;  nor  are  they,  if  discovered 
and  secured  before  their  conspiracy  has  matured  to  an 
actual  rising,  or  to  armed  violence. 

The  war-traitor  is  always  severely  punished.  If  his 
offense  consists  in  betraying  to  the  enemy  anything  con- 
cerning the  condition,  safety,  operations  or  plans  of  the 
troops  holding  or  occupying  the  place  or  district,  his 
punishment  is  death. 

If  the  citizen  or  subject  of  a  country  or  place  invaded 
or  conquered  gives  information  to  his  own  government, 
from  which  he  is  separated  by  the  hostile  army,  or  to 
the  army  of  his  government,  he  is  a  war-traitor,  and 
death  is  the  penalty  of  his  offense. 

Traitor. 

A  traitor  under  the  law  of  war,  or  a  war-traitor,  is  a 
person  in  a  place  or  district  under  martial  law  who, 
unauthorized  by  military  commander,  gives  information 
of  any  kind  to  the  enemy,  or  holds  intercourse  with  him. 

Flag  of  Truce. 

The  bearer  of  a  flag  of  truce  cannot  insist  upon  being 
admitted.  He  must  always  be  admitted  with  great  cau- 
tion. Unnecessary  frequency  is  carefully  to  be  avoided. 

If  the  bearer  of  a  flag  of  truce  offer  himself  during  an 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA. 

engagement,  he  can  be  admitted  as  a  very  rare  exception 
only.  It  is  no  breach  of  good  faith  to  retain  such  a  flag 
of  truce,  if  admitted  during  the  engagement.  Firing  is 
not  required  to  cease  on  the  appearance  of  a  flag  of 
truce  in  battle. 

If  the  bearer  of  a  flag  of  truce,  presenting  himself 
during  an  engagement,  is  killed  or  wounded,  it  furnishes 
no  ground  of  complaint  whatever. 

Hospital  Flag. 

It  is  customary  to  designate  by  certain  flags  (usually 
yellow)  the  hospitals  in  places  which  are  shelled,  so  that 
the  besieging  enemy  may  avoid  firing  on  them.  The 
same  has  been  done  in  battles,  when  hospitals  are  situ- 
ated within  the  field  of  the  engagement. 

It  is  justly  considered  an  act  of  bad  faith,  of  infamy  or 
fiendishness,  to  deceive  the  enemy  by  flags  of  protection. 
Such  an  act  of  bad  faith  may  be  good  cause  for  refusing 
to  respect  such  flags. 

The  besieging  belligerent  has  sometimes  requested'the 
besieged  to  designate  the  buildings  containing  collec- 
tions of  works  of  art,  scientific  museums,  astronomical 
observatories,  or  precious  libraries,  so  that  their  destruc- 
tion may  be  avoided  as  much  as  possible. 

"  In  the  case  of  a  collection  of  Italian  paintings  and 
prints  captured  by  a  British  vessel  during  the  war  of 
1812,  in  their  passage  from  Italy  to  the  United  States> 
the  learned  judge  (Sir  Alexander  Croke),  vice-admiralty 
court  at  Halifax,  directed  them  to  be  restored  to  the 
Academy  of  Arts  in  Philadelphia,  on  the  ground  that 
the  arts  and  sciences  are  admitted,  amongst  all  civilized 
nations,  to  form  an  exception  to  the  several  rights  of 
war,  and  are  entitled  to  favor  and  protection.  They  are 
considered  not  as  the  peculium  of  this  or  that  nation, 
but  as  the  property  of  mankind  at  large  and  as  belong- 
ing to  the  common  interest  of  the  whole  species;  and 


THE    PASSING    OF    SPAIN    AND 

that  the  restitution  of  such  property  to  the  claimants 
would  be  in  conformity  with  the  law  of  nations  as  prac- 
ticed by  all  civilized  countries."* 

Parole. 

Breaking  the  parole  is  punished  with  death  when  the 
person  breaking  the  parole  is  captured  again. 

Accurate  lists,  therefore,  of  the  paroled  persons  must 
be  kept  by  the  belligerents. 

Commissioned  officers  only  are  allowed  to  give  their 
parole,  and  they  give  it  only  with  the  permission  of  their 
superior,  as  long  as  a  superior  in  rank  is  within  reach. 

No  non-commissioned  officer  or  private  can  give  his 
parole  except  through  an  officer.  Individual  paroles  not 
given  through  an  officer  are  not  only  void,  but  subject  the 
individual  giving  them  to  the  punishment  of  death  as  de- 
serters. The  only  admissible  exception  is  where  indi- 
viduals, properly  separated  from  their  commands,  have 
suffered  long  confinement  without  the  possibility  of  being 
paroled  through  an  officer. 

No  paroling  on  the  battle-field,  no  paroling  of  entire 
bodies  of  troops  after  a  battle,  and  no  dismissal  of  large 
numbers  of  prisoners,  with  a  general  declaration  that  they 
are  paroled,  is  permitted,  or  of  any  value. 

In  capitulations  for  the  surrender  of  strong  places  or 
fortified  camps,  the  commanding  officer,  in  cases  of  urgent 
necessity,  may  agree  that  the  troops  under  his  command 
shall  not  fight  again  during  the  war,  unless  exchanged. 

The  commander  of  an  occupying  army  may  require  of 
the  civil  officers  of  the  enemy,  and  of  its  citizens,  any 
pledge  he  may  consider  necessary  for  the  safety  or  secur- 
ity of  his  army,  and  upon  their  failure  to  give  it,  he  may 
arrest,  confine,  or  detain  them. 

"  Generally,  a  belligerent  contents  himself  with  a  pledge 
that  his  prisoner,  unless  exchanged,  will  not  serve  during 

*Wharton's  "International  Law  Digest,"  page  350. 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  293 

the  existing  war  against  the  captor  or  his  allies  engaged 
in  the  same  war.  This  pledge  is  understood  to  refer  only 
to  active  service  in  the  field,  and  does  not,  therefore,  debar 
prisoners  from  performing  military  duties  of  any  kind  at 
places  not  within  the  seat  of  actual  hostilities,  notwith- 
standing that  the  services  thus  rendered  may  have  a 
direct  effect  in  increasing  the  power  of  the  country  for 
resistance  or  aggression.  Thus,  paroled  prisoners  may 
raise  and  drill  recruits,  they  may  fortify  places  not  yet 
within  the  scope  of  military  operations,  and  they  may  be 
employed  in  the  administrative  departments  of  the  army 
away  from  the  seat  of  war.  As  the  right  of  a  belligerent 
over  his  prisoners  is  limited  to  the  bare  power  of  keeping 
them  in  safe  custody  for  the  duration  of  the  war,  he  can- 
not in  paroling  them  make  stipulations  which  are  incon- 
sistent with  their  duties  as  subjects,  or  which  shall  con- 
tinue to  operate  after  the  conclusion  of  peace.  Thus  if 
prisoners  are  liberated  on  condition  of  not  serving  during 
a  specified  period,  before  the  end  of  which  peace  is  con- 
cluded and  hostilities  again  break  out,  they  enter  upon 
the  fresh  war  discharged  from  obligation  to  the  enemy. 
The  prisoner  who  violates  the  conditions  upon  which 
he  has  been  paroled  is  punishable  with  death  if  he  falls 
into  the  hands  of  the  enemy  before  the  termination  of  the 
war."  * 

Armistice. 

An  armistice  is  the  cessation  of  active  hostilities  for  a 
period  agreed  upon  between  the  belligerents.  It  must  be 
agreed  upon  in  writing,  and  duly  ratified  by  the  highest 
authorities  of  the  contending  parties. 

An  armistice  is  binding  upon  the  belligerent  frorri  the 
day  of  the  agreed  commencement ;  but  the  officers  of  the 
armies  are  responsible  from  the  day  only  when  they  re- 
ceive official  information  of  its  existence. 

*  "  International  Law,"  W.  E.  Hall,  London,  (p.  426). 


294  THE    PASSING    OF    SPAIN    AXD 

An  armistice  is  not  a  partial  or  a  temporary  peace  ;  it  is 
only  the  suspension  of  military  operations  to  the  extent 
agreed  upon  by  the  parties. 

When  an  armistice  is  concluded  between  a  fortified 
place  and  the  army  besieging  it,  it  is  agreed  by  all  the 
authorities  on  this  subject  that  the  besieger  must  cease  all 
extension,  perfection,  or  advance  of  his  attacking  work,  as 
much  so  as  from  attacks  by  main  force. 

But  as  there  is  a  difference  of  opinion  among  martial 
jurists,  whether  the  besieged  have  the  right  to  repair 
breaches  or  to  erect  new  works  of  defense  within  the 
place  during  an  armistice,  this  point  should  be  determined 
by  express  agreement  between  the  parties. 

Capitulation. 

The  term  parole  designates  the  pledge  of  individual 
good  faith  and  honor  to  do,  or  to  omit  doing,  certain  acts 
after  he  who  gives  his  parole  shall  have  been  dismissed, 
wholly  or  partially,  from  the  power  of  the  captor. 

So  soon  as  a  capitulation  is  signed,  the  capitulator  has 
no  right  to  demolish,  destroy,  or  injure  the  works,  arms, 
stores,  or  ammunition,  in  his  possession,  during  the  time 
which  elapses  between  the  signing  and  execution  of  the 
capitulation,  unless  otherwise  stipulated  in  the  same. 

Treating  of  Rebels. 

Treating  captured  rebels  as  prisoners  of  war,  exchang- 
ing them,  concluding  of  cartels,  capitulations  or  other 
warlike  agreements  with  them ;  addressing  officers  of  a 
rebel  army  by  the  rank  they  may  have  in  the  same ; 
accepting  flags  of  truce ;  or,  on  the  other  hand,  proclaim- 
ing martial  law  in  their  territory,  or  levying  war  taxes  or 
forced  loans,  or  doing  any  other  act  sanctioned  or  de- 
manded by  the  law  and  usages  of  public  war  between 
sovereign  belligerents,  neither  proves  nor  establishes  an 
acknowledgment  of  the  rebellious  people,  or  of  the  gov- 
ernment which  they  may  have  erected,  as  a  public  or 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  295 

sovereign  power.  Nor  does  the  adoption  of  the  rules  of 
war  toward  rebels  imply  an  engagement  with  them  ex- 
tending beyond  the  limits  of  these  rules.  It  is  victory  in 
the  field  that  ends  the  strife,  and  settles  the  future  relations 
between  the  contending  parties. 

Treating,  in  the  field,  the  rebellious  enemy  according 
to  the  law  and  usages  of  war,  has  never  prevented  the 
legitimate  government  from  trying  the  leaders  of  the  re- 
bellion or  chief  rebels  for  high  treason,  and  from  treating 
them  accordingly,  unless  they  are  included  in  a  general 

amnesty.* 

» 

Conference  at  Brussels,  1874. 

Delegates  were  present  from  all  the  countries  of 
Europe.  They  drew  up  the  following  rules  and  regu- 
lations in  regard  to  conduct  of  war,  but  did  not  formally 
agree  to  them  in  such  a  manner  as  to  render  them 
binding  upon  the  countries  they  represented.  The  most 
of  the  rules,  however,  may  be  considered  as  good  inter- 
national law.  They  are  further  of  interest  as  showing 
what  Europe  will  expect  our  conduct  to  be  when  we 
occupy  conquered  territory. 

1.  A  territory  is    considered  as  occupied  when  it  is 
actually  placed  under  the  authority  of  the  hostile  army. 
The  occupation  only  extends  to  those  territories  where 
this  authority  is  established  and  can  be  exercised. 

2.  The  authority  of  the  legal  power  being  suspended, 
and    having    actually   passed    into    the    hands    of    the 
occupier,    he    shall    take    every    step    in    his    power   to 
re-establish  and  secure,  as  far  as  possible,  public  safety 
and  social  order. 

3.  With  this  object  he  will  maintain   the  laws  which 
were   in  force   in  the  country  in  time  of  peace,   and  will 
only  modify,  suspend  or  replace  them  by  others  if  neces- 
sity obliges  him  to  do  so. 

*  Snow's  "Cases  on  International  Law." 


296  THE    PASSING    OF    SPAIN    AND 

4.  The  functionaries  and  officials  of  every  class  who 
at  the  instance  of  the  occupier  consent   to  continue  to 
perform  their  duties,  shall  be  under  his  protection.    They 
shall  not   be  dismissed  or  be  liable  to  summary  punish- 
ment unless  they  fail  in  fulfilling   the  obligations  they 
have   undertaken,  and  shall  be   handed  over  to  justice,, 
only  if  they  violate  those   obligations  by  unfaithfulness. 

5.  The    army    of    occupation    shall    only    levy    such 
taxes,  dues,  tolls,  as  are  already  established  for  the  benefit 
of  the  State,  or  their  equivalent,  if  it  be  impossible  to 
collect  them,  and  this  shall  be  done  as  far  as  possible  in 
the  form  of,  and  according  to,  existing  practice.     It  shall 
devote  them   to  defraying  the  expenses  of  the  adminis- 
tration of  the  country  to  the  same  extent  as  was  obliga- 
tory on  the  legal  government. 

6.  The  army  occupying  a  territory  shall  take  posses- 
sion   only   of    the   specie,    the    funds,   and    marketable 
securities,  etc.,  which  are  the   property  of  the   State   in 
its  own  right,  the  depots  of   arms,  means  of  transport, 
magazines,  and  supplies,  and  in  general,  all  the  personal 
property  of  the   State,  which   is  of  a  nature  to  aid  in 
carrying  on  the  war.      Railway  plant,  land  telegraphs, 
steam  and  other  vessels,  not  included  in  cases  regulated 
by  maritime   law,   although   belonging  to  companies  or 
to  private  individuals,   are  to   be  considered  equally  as 
means  of  nature  to  aid  in  carrying  on  a  war,  which  can- 
not be  left  by  the  army  of  occupation   at  the  disposal  of 
the  enemy.       Railway  plant,  land  telegraphs   as  well  as 
the  steam  and  other  vessels  above  mentioned,  shall  be 
restored,  and  indemnities  be  regulated  on  the  conclusion 
of  peace. 

7.  The   occupying  State  shall  only  consider  itself  in 
the  light  of  an  administration  usufructuary  of  the  public 
buildings,  real   property,  forests,  and   agricultural  works 
belon<nn<r    to    the    hostile    State,    and    situated    in    the 

*T»          O 

occupied  territory.      It  is  bound  to  protect  these  proper- 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA. 

ties,  and  to  administer  them  according  to  the  laws  of 
usufruct. 

8.  The  property  of  parishes,  of  establishments 
devoted  to  religion,  charity,  education,  arts,  and  sciences, 
although  belonging  to  the  State,  shall  be  treated  as 
private  property.  Every  seizure,  destruction  of,  or  wilful 
damage  to  such  establishments,  historical  monuments,  or 
works  of  art  or  of  science,  should  be  prosecuted  by  the 
competent  authories. 

War. 

War  does  not  extinguish  debts  due  from  the  citizens 
of  one  belligerent  to  those  of  another ;  it  merely  sus- 
pends the  remedy  for  their  recovery. 

After  a  declaration  of  war  all  intercourse  is  forbidden ; 
an  American  citizen  cannot  lawfully  send  a  vessel  to  an 
enemy's  country  to  bring  away  his  property. 

Trading  with  an  enemy  does  not  ipso  facto,  forfeit  the 
property  so  obtained  by  a  citizen,  but  only  subjects  it  to 
condemnation  when  regularly  captured. 

The  citizens  of  one  belligerent  state  are  incapable  of 
contracting  with  the  citizens  of  another  belligerent 
state.  The  effect  of  war  is  to  dissolve  the  partnerships 
between  citizens  of  hostile  nations. 

A  sale  by  a  belligerent  of  a  warship  in  a  neutral  port 
is  invalid,  by  the  law  of  nations,  as  construed  both  in 
England  and  America. 

Where  private  property  is  impressed  into  public  use 
during  an  emergency,  such  as  war,  a  contract  is  implied 
on  the  part  of  the  Government  to  make  compensation  to 
the  owner. 

Declaration  of  War. 

During  the  Middle  Ages  and  down  into  the  i6th 
century,  notice  of  war  was  almost  always  given  to  the 
enemy  either  by  letter  or  by  sending  heralds.  The 
practice  gradually  became  less  general  until  within  the 


298  THE    PASSING   OF    SPAIN    AND 

past  100  years  a  large  majority  of  the  wars  which   have 
occurred  began  without  any  formal  notice  whatever. 

Civil  wars  by  their  very  nature  begin  without  such 
notice.  With  the  present  means  of  communication 
between  nations  there  is  less  necessity  for  a  formal 
declaration  of  war.  Its  chief  purpose  is  to  fix  a  definite 
time  from  which  to  date  the  beginning  of  hostilities  and 
determine  the  legality  of  the  capture  of  prizes  or  other 
acts  of  war  and  give  general  notice  to  neutral  nations. 

Spanish  Declaration  of  War. 

"  Diplomatic  relations  are  broken  off  between  Spain 
and  the  United  States,  and,  the  state  of  war  being  begun 
between  the  two  countries  numerous  questions  of  inter- 
national law  arise,  which  must  be  precisely  defined, 
chiefly  because  the  injustice  and  provocation  come  from 
our  adversaries,  and  it  is  they  who,  by  their  detestable 
conduct,  have  caused  this  grave  conflict. 

"  We  have  observed  with  the  strictest  fidelity  the 
principles  of  international  law  and  have  shown  the  most 
scrupulous  respect  for  morality  and  the  right  of  govern- 
ment. There  is  an  opinion  that  the  fact  that  we  have 
not  adhered  to  the  Declaration  of  Paris  does  not  exempt 
us  from  the  duty  of  respecting  the  principles  therein 
enunciated.  The  principle  Spain  unquestionably  refused 
to  admit  then  was  the  abolition  of  privateering.  The 
government  now  considers  it  most  indispensable  to  make 
absolute  reserve  on  this  point,  in  order  to  maintain  our 
liberty  of  action  and  uncontested  right  to  have  recourse 
to  privateering  when  we  consider  it  expedient,  first  by 
organizing  immediately  a  force  of  cruisers,  auxiliary  to 
the  navy,  which  will  be  composed  of  vessels  of  our 
mercantile  marine  and  with  equal  distinction  in  the  work 
of  our  navy. 

"Clause  i.  The  state  of  war  existing  between  Spain 
and  the  United  States  annuls  the  treaty  of  peace  and 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  299 

comity  of  October  27,  1795,  and  the  protocol  of  January 
12,  1877,  and  all  other  agreements,  treaties  or  conventions 
in  force  between  the  two  countries. 

"  Clause  2.  From  the  publication  of  these  presents 
thirty  days  are  granted  to  all  ships  of  the  United  States 
anchored  in  our  harbors  to  take  their  departure  free  of 
hindrance. 

"  Clause  3.  Notwithstanding  that  Spain  has  not 
adhered  to  the  Declaration  of  Paris,  the  government, 
respecting  the  principles  of  the  law  of  nations,  proposes 
to  observe,  and  hereby  orders  to  be  observed,  the  follow- 
ing regulations  of  maritime  law : 

"  i.  Neutral  flags  cover  the  enemy's  merchandise, 
except  contraband  of  war. 

"  2.  Neutral  merchandise,  except  contraband  of  war,  is 
not  seizable  under  the  enemy's  flag. 

"  3.  A  blockade,  to  be  obligatory,  must  be  effective  — 
Tiz.,  it  must  be  maintained  with  sufficient  force  to  prevent 
access  to  the  enemy's  coast. 

"4.  The  Spanish  government,  upholding  its  right  to 
grant  letters  of  marque,  will  at  present  confine  itself  to 
organizing,  with  the  vessels  of  the  mercantile  marine,  a 
force  of  auxiliary  cruisers,  which  will  co-operate  with  the 
navy,  according  to  the  needs  of  the  campaign,  and  will  be 
under  naval  control. 

"  5.  In  order  to  capture  the  enemy's  ships  and  confis- 
cate the  enemy's  merchandise  and  contraband  of  war 
under  whatever  form,  the  auxiliary  cruisers  will  exercise 
the  right  of  search  on  the  high  seas  and  in  the  waters 
under  the  enemy's  jurisdiction,  in  accordance  with  inter- 
national law  and  the  regulations  which  will  be  published. 

"  6.  Defines  what  is  included  in  contraband  of  war, 
naming  weapons,  ammunition,  equipments,  engines  and 
'  in  general,  all  the  appliances  used  in  war.' 

"  7.  To  be  regarded  and  judged  as  pirates,  with  all  the 
rigor  of  the  law,  are  captains,  masters,  officers  and  two- 


30O  THE    PASSING   OF    SPAIN    AND 

thirds  of  the  crew  of  vessels  which,  not  being  American, 
shall  commit  acts  of  war  against  Spain,  even  if  provided 
with  letters  of  marque  issued  by  the  United  States." 

Duties  of  Neutrals. 

The  latest  laws  of  England  defining  her  duties  as  a 
neutral,  represent  pretty  well  the  general  requirements  of 
International  Law.  By  these  laws  a  citizen  of  Her 
Majesty's  dominions  is  forbidden  to  do  the  following 
things : 

1.  Build  or  agree  to  build,  or  cause  to  be  built,  any 
ship  with  the  intent  or  knowledge,  or  having  reasonable 
cause  to  believe,  that  the  same  shall  or  will  be  employed 
in   the  military  or  naval  service  of  any  foreign  state  at 
war  with  any  friendly  state. 

2.  Equip  any  ship  with  the  intent  or  knowledge,   or 
having  reasonable  cause  to  believe,  that  the  same  shall 
or  will  be  employed  in  the  naval  or  military  service  of 
any  foreign  state  at  war  with  any  friendly  state. 

3.  Dispatch  or  cause  or  allow  to  be  dispatched,  any 
ship  with  the  intent  or  knowledge,  or  having  reasonable 
cause  to  believe,  that  the  same  shall  or  will  be  employed 
in  the  naval  or  military  service  of  any  foreign   state  at 
war  with  any  friendly  state. 

The  burden  of  proving  that  a  ship  built  for  and  paid 
for  by  a  foreign  State  and  employed  by  it  in  naval  or 
military  operations  does  not  come  within  the  statutes,  is 
thrown  on  the  builder. 

Changing  Armament. 

To  provide  for  a  difficulty  which  arose  in  1861-3,  a 
penalty  is  attached  to  adding  guns  or  equipments  of  war. 

No  person  shall,  by  adding  to  the  number  of  guns,  or 
by  changing  those  on  board  for  other  guns,  or  by  the 
addition  'of  an  equipment  for  war,  increase  the  warlike 
force  of  any  ship  which  at  the  time  of  her  being  within 
the  dominion  of  Her  Majesty  was  a  ship  in  the  military 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  3OI 

or  naval  service  of  any  foreign  state  at  war  with   any 
friendly  state. 

Rights  of  a  Neutral. 

A  neutral's  chief  right  is  that  its  neutrality  shall  be 
respected.  If  it  sustains  unlawful  injuries,  satisfaction 
for  them  should  be  given.  For  example,  the  stopping 
of  the  English  steamer  "  Trent "  by  the  United  States 
forces  was  unlawful ;  the  prisoners  were  surrendered  and 
the  act  disavowed. 

Fighting  must  not  take  place  within  a  neutral's  boun- 
daries and  if  a  vessel  is  captured  in  neutral  waters,  the 
neutral  power  may  seize  it  and  restore  it  to  the  owner, 
or  if  it  has  been  taken  to  the  prize  court  of  the  captor, 
demand  that  the  captor  return  it  to  the  owner. 

Its  diplomatic  corps  and  consular  officers  shall  not  be 
molested  and  it  may  claim  all  the  rights  and  privileges 
of  neutrals  on  land  and  sea  and  make  good  its  rights  b  y 
force  if  necessary. 

Indemnity. 

"  No  principle  is  better  established  than  that  a  nation 
at  war  has  the  right  of  shifting  the  burden  off  itself  and 
imposing  it  on  the  enemy  by  exacting  military  contri- 
butions. The  right  to  levy  these  contributions  is  essen- 
tial to  the  successful  prosecution  of  a  war  in  the  enemy's 
country  and  the  practice  of  the  nations  has  been  in  accord- 
ance with  this  principle.  It  is  as  clearly  necessary  as 
the  right  to  fight  battles  and  its  exercise  is  often  essen- 
tial to  the  subsistence  of  the  army."* 

The  expense  of  modern  warfare  has  greatly  increased 
the  amount  of  indemnity  or  military  contributions  levied 
by  the  conqueror  upon  the  unsuccessful  power.  The 
reasons  usually  urged  for  these  are,  that  the  conqueror 
has  a  right  to  levy  contributions  on  the  territory  con- 

'""  Wharton's  "  International  Law  Digest."     Section  339. 


302  THE    PASSING   OF   SPAIN    AND 

quered  to  support  his  army  and  so  this  implies  the  right 
to  repay  himself  for  all  the  expenses  of  the  war. 

Further,  by  crippling  the  resources  of  the  conquered 
nation,  it  is  rendered  more  difficult  for  them  to  renew  the 
war,  and  is  a  better  guarantee  of  peace  than  a  treaty 
would  be. 

An  indemnity  is  a  modern  illustration  of  the  proverb, 
"  Might  makes  right" 

There  have  been  numerous  examples  of  these  exac- 
tions in  history.  Napoleon  carried  it  further  than  any 
other  leader  of  modern  times ;  did  not  even  respect  works 
of  art,  which  are  usually  considered  exempt  from  such 
exactions,  and  his  money  tax  aggregated  many  millions 
of  dollars.  France  has  suffered  greatly  from  the  reac- 
tion, as  she  paid  700,000,000  of  francs  in  1815  and  5,000,- 
000,000  of  francs  in  1871  to  Germany,  besides  losing  her 
two  provinces,  Alsace  and  Lorraine. 

In  1877  occurred  the  war  between  Russia  and  Turkey, 
and  as  a  result  the  conquerors  obtained  a  large  accession 
of  territory  in  Asia  and  a  money  damage  enough  to  crip- 
ple the  resources  of  Turkey  for  many  years.  Much  of  it 
is  yet  unpaid,  and  Russia  recently  used  with  effect  the 
threat  of  enforcing  the  payments  due.  The  indemnity 
proper  was  802,500,000  francs,  with  an  additional  amount 
of  26,750,000  francs  for  injuries  sustained  by  Russian 
subjects. 

In  the  Japanese  war,  by  the  treaty  of  1895,  China  was 
to  pay  Japan  200,000,000  taels,*  some  territory,  muni- 
tions of  war,  etc.,  with  other  considerations.  Russia, 
France  and  Germany  presented  a  joint  note  of  protest  to 
the  Japanese  government  and  would  not  allow  her  to  take 
possession  of  the  territory  ceded  by  China,  and  30,000,- 
ooo  taels  was  accepted  by  Japan  in  lieu  of  the  territory. 

The  war  of  1897  between  Greece  and  Turkey  was 
settled  by  adjusting  the  boundary  so  as  to  give  Turkey 

*  A  tael  is  equal  to  about  $1.40  in  our  money. 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  30$ 

some  strategic  advantage,  and  Greece  agreed  to  pay  an 
indemnity  or  fine  of  £400,000. 

The  Red  Cross  Society. 

Under  this  name  is  banded  the  benevolent  societies  of 
twenty-five  different  countries  for  the  purpose  of  relieving 
the  suffering  in  warfare  of  those  enlisted  either  in  the 
army  or  the  navy. 

To  Monsieur  Henri  Dunant  is  due  the  credit  of  the 
initial  movement  in  this  direction.  He  was  a  Swiss  phy- 
sician, who  published  a  striking  account  of  the  appalling 
suffering  he  had  seen  in  two  military  hospitals  on  the 
battle-field  of  Solferino.  He  was  ably  seconded  by  Mon- 
sieur Gustave  Moynier,  chairman  of  the  Geneva  Society 
of  Public  Utility,  and  Dr.  Louis  Appia,  of  Geneva. 
Their  first  movement  was  to  "  neutralize  the  sick 
wagons" — that  is,  have  the  ambulances  containing  the 
wounded  exempt  from  attack  by  an  opposing  force. 
They  urged  these  views  upon  the  different  governments 
until  an  international  conference  was  called  at  Geneva, 
Switzerland,  in  1863,  which  formulated  rules  they  con- 
sidered proper  for  carrying  on  modern  warfare.  Since 
that  time  twenty-five  or  more  nations  have  joined  it, 
including  all  the  nations  of  Europe,  and  even  Persia,  and 
one  of  our  Western  States  has  ceded  the  society  a  small 
tract  of  land,  which  by  international  agreement  would  be 
neutral  ground  if  this  country  were  invaded.  The 
society,  as  a  whole,  is  international,  but  it  is  made  up  of 
different  relief  societies,  each  of  which  is  strictly  national 
and  governed  by  its  own  laws,  rules  and  necessities. 

The  red  cross  was  chosen  as  its  emblem  out  of  com- 
pliment to  the  Swiss  Republic,  in  whose  territory  the 
first  conference  was  held..  The  Swiss  colors  being  a  red 
field  with  a  white  cross,  the  badge  chosen  reversed  the 
colors  and  gave  it  a  red  cross  on  a  white  field. 

"  There  are  no  '  members  of  the  Red  Cross '  but  only 


304  THE    PASSING    OF    SPAIN    AM) 

members  of  societies  whose  sign  it  is.  There  is  no 
4  Order  of  the  Red  Cross.'  The  relief  societies  use,  each 
according  to  its  convenience,  whatever  methods  seem 
best  suited  to  prepare  in  times  of  peace,  for  the  necessi- 
ties and  sanitary  service  in  times  of  war.  They  gather 
and  store  gifts  of  money  and  supplies,  arrange  hospitals, 
ambulances,  methods  of  transportation  of  wounded  men, 
bureaus  of  information,  correspondence,  etc.  All  that 
the  most  ingenious  philanthropy  could  devise  and  exe- 
cute has  been  attempted  in  this  direction."  They  have 
abundantly  proven  their  efficiency  by  their  conduct 
during  the  Franco-German  and  Turko-Greek  wars,  while 
nearer  our  home  their  prompt  action  in  the  Johnstown 
flood,  the  relief  of  the  reconcentrados  and  the  wounded 
in  the  Spanish-American  war,  shows  that  the  American 
branch  is  not  behind  its  sister  organizations  in  efficiency. 
Miss  Clara  Barton  at  the  head  of  the  society  in  this 
country  is  frequently  called  the  "  Florence  Nightingale 
of  America." 

Articles  of  Geneva  Convention. 

Article  I.  Ambulances  and  military  hospitals  shall  be 
acknowledged  to  be  neutral,  and  as  such  shall  be  pro- 
tected and  respected  by  belligerents  so  long  as  any  sick 
or  wounded  men  be  therein.  Such  neutrality  shall  cease 
if  the  ambulances  or  hospitals  should  be  held  by  any 
military  force. 

Article  II.  Persons  employed  by  hospitals  and  ambu- 
lances comprising  the  staff  for  superintendence,  medical 
service,  administration,  transport  of  wounded,  as  well  as 
chaplains,  shall  participate  in  the  benefit  of  neutrality 
while  so  employed  and  so  long  as  there  remain  any 
wounded  to  bring  in  or  to  succor. 

Article  III.  The  persons  designated  in  the  preceding 
articles,  may  even  after  occupatton  by  the  enemy  con- 
tinue to  fulfill  their  duties  in  the  hospitals  and  ambu- 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  305 

lances  which  they  serve,  or  may  withdraw  in  order  to 
join  the  corps  to  which  they  belong. 

Under  such  circumstances,  when  these  persons  shall 
cease  from  their  functions  they  will  be  delivered  by  the 
occupying  army  to  the  outposts  of  the  enemy. 

Article  IV.  As  the  equipment  of  military  hospitals 
remains  subject  to  the  laws  of  war,  persons  attached  to 
such  hospitals  cannot,  in  withdrawing,  carry  away  any 
articles  but  such  as  are  their  private  property. 

Under  the  same  circumstances,  an  ambulance  shall, 
on  the  contrary,  retain  their  equipment. 

Article  V.  Inhabitants  of  the  country  who  may  bring 
help  to  the  wounded  shall  be  respected  and  shall  remain 
free.  The  generals  of  the  belligerent  powers  shall  make 
it  their  care  to  inform  the  inhabitants  of  the  appeal 
addressed  to  their  humanity  and  neutrality  which  will  be 
the  consequence  of  it.  A  wounded  man  entertained 
and  taken  care  of  in  a  house  shall  be  considered  a  pro- 
tection thereto.  Any  inhabitant  who  shall  have  enter- 
tained wounded  men  in  his  house  shall  be  exempted  from 
the  quartering  of  troops  as  well  as  from  a  part  of  the  con- 
tributions of  war  which  may  be  imposed. 

Article  VI.  Wounded  or  sick  soldiers  shall  be  enter- 
tained and  taken  care  of,  to  whatever  nationality  they 
may  belong.  Commanders-in-chief  shall  have  the  power 
to  deliver  to  the  outposts  of  the  enemy,  soldiers  who  have 
been  wounded  in  an  engagement  when  circumstances 
permit  this  to  be  so,  and  with  the  consent  of  both  parties. 

Article  VII.  A  distinctive  and  uniform  flag  shall  be 
adopted  for  hospitals,  ambulances  and  evacuations.  It 
must  on  every  occasion  be  accompanied  by  the  nation's 
flag.  An  arm  badge  (brassard)  shall  also  be  allowed  for 
individuals  neutralized,  but  the  delivery  thereof  shall  be 
left  to  military  authority. 

The  flag  and  arm  badge  shall  bear  a  red  cross  on  a 
white  ground.* 

*  Snow's  "  Cases  on  International  Law,"  page  531. 
2O 


306  THE    PASSING   OF   SPAIN    AND 

CHAPTER  VIII. 
Evolution  of  the  Modern  Navy. 

Development  of  the  Ironclad. 

The  idea  of  armor  for  ships  is  an  old  one.  The  gal- 
leys of  the  early  Greeks  and  Romans  were  frequently 
strengthened  by  bands  of  iron  which  sometimes  met  at 
the  prow  and  formed  a  ram.  The  Norse  "Sea  Kings" 
hung  the  shields  of  their  soldiers  along  the  sides  of  their 
galleys.  Coming  down  to  modern  times,  the  floating 
batteries  used  by  the  Spanish  when  besieging  Gibraltar 
in  1783,  were  protected  by  thick  walls  of  timber  strength- 
ened by  thicknesses  of  hide  and  bars  of  iron. 

Fulton. 

In  our  own  country,  Robert  Fulton,  in  the  war  of  1812, 
proposed  to  build  an  impregnable  floating  battery,  pro- 
pelled by  steam,  that  would  relieve  the  blockade  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Delaware.  Congress  authorized  him  to 
begin  the  work,  and  he  began  the  construction  of  a 
peculiar  one  with  two  hulls,  between  which  the  paddle- 
wheel  worked.  The  walls  were  made  of  wood,  but  of 
great  thickness.  The  boat  was  not  completed  in  time  to 
take  part  in  the  military  operations.  Something  like  it 
was  afterwards  rebuilt  and  it  is  said  to  have  been  covered 
with  thin  plates  of  iron. 

After  the  war  of  1812  the  development  of  home  indus- 
tries and  internal  improvements  offered  such  a  wide  and 
profitable  field  to  American  ingenuity  and  industry  that 
not  much  attention  was  paid  to  naval  affairs.  The 
United  States  seemed  to  be  content  with  the  building  of 
wooden  frigates  similar  to  those  that  had  distinguished 
themselves  in  single  combat  with  vessels  of  a  correspond- 
ing class  of  the  British  navy. 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  307 

Stevens  Family  of  Inventors. 

Fulton  had  as  rivals,  "  foemen  worthy  of  his  steel,"  in 
the  famous  Stevens  family,  who  were  distinguished 
American  engineers.  In  1804,  Colonel  John  Stevens 
fitted  out  a  steamboat  with  a  double  screw.  His  pro- 
peller was  a  crude  four-bladed  one  and  the  engines  were 
not  powerful  enough  to  make  it  a  success,  but  beyond  the 
shadow  of  a  doubt  the  modern  screw  propeller  is  its 
lineal  descendent  In  1812,  Colonel  Stevens  planned  a 
fort  for  the  defense  of  New  York,  which  was  to  be  plated 
with  iron  and  revolved  by  machinery,  and  the  same  year 
submitted  a  plan  for  a  boat  closely  resembling  the  Moni- 
tor type,  also  to  be  armor  clad.  It  is  said  that  this  was 
the  first  plan  for  a  fully  armored  ship.  About  this  time, 
Edwin  A.  Stevens,  a  son  of  Colonel  John  Stevens,  was 
making  experiments  with  a  6-pound  cannon  to  determine 
the  resisting  power  of  iron  plates. 

First  Ironclad. 

In  1841,  the  Stevens  family  submitted  plans  for  a  ship 
to  be  protected  by  4  1-2  inches  of  iron,  which  their  experi- 
ments had  proven  would  resist  the  cannon  of  that  day, 
and  in  1842  Congress  voted  an  appropriation  of  $250,- 
ooo  for  the  building  of  such  a  vessel  by  the  Stevens 
Brothers.  It  was  to  be  410  feet  long,  45  feet  inside  the 
armor,  of  light  draft,  2  feet  of  freeboard  and  with  a  square, 
immovable  turret.  Through  the  fault  of  Congress  it 
was  never  completed. 

Ericsson  improved  over  the  Stevens'  idea  by  com- 
bining the  Stevens  boat  of  light  draft,  low  freeboard  and 
armored  sides,  with  the  Timby  revolving  turret. 

Forced  Draft. 

The  air-tight  fire  room  devised  by  Edwin  A.  Stevens 
and  patented  April,  1842,  marks  another  step  in  advance 
for  our  battleship,  as  it  made  possible  "  forced  draft,"  by 


308  THE    PASSING    OF    SPAIN    AND 

which  air  is  forced  into  the  furnaces  by  a  powerful  fan, 
blowing  the  fires  like  a  blacksmith's  bellows. 

Revolving  Turret. 

This  period  seems  to  have  been  a  prolific  one  for  mili- 
tary ideas  and  we  find  Theodore  R.  Timby,  of  Dutchess 
county,  New  York,  presenting  in  1841  a  model  of  a 
metallic  revolving  tower.  He  filed. his  caveat  with  the 
patent  office  January  18,  1843,  and  the  same  year  com- 
pleted and  exhibited  an  iron  model,  and  a  little  later  pre- 
sented a  model  to  the  Emperor  of  China  through  the 
American  representative,  Caleb  Gushing,  In  1848  a 
commission  of  Congress  made  a  favorable  report  to  the 
Secretary  of  War  upon  Timby's  proposed  system,  and 
when  the  Civil  War  broke  out  he  had  patents  for  "a 
revolving  metallic  tower"  and  for  a  "  floating  battery  to 
be  propelled  by  steam."  His  claim  was  so  good  a  one 
that  when  Ericsson  began  the  construction  of  the 
"  Monitor,"  a  United  States  court  granted  Timby  an 
injunction,  restraining  Ericsson  from  proceeding  until 
he  should  have  paid  Timby  a  royalty  for  the  use  of  his 
invention.  Timby  settled  with  Ericsson  and  his  finan- 
cial backers,  Bushnell  and  Delamater,  for  $100,000.  In 
1862,  Timby  devised  the  method  now  used  for  firing 
heavy  guns  by  electricity. 

In  1843  John  Ericsson  .made  the  "  Princeton  "  for  the 
United  States.  She  was  the  first  warship  to  be  moved 
by  the  screw  propeller,  and  her  engines  were  below  the 
water  line.  With  the  engines  where  they  were  not  liable 
to  injury  by  the  artillery  of  the  day,  and  a  screw  propeller 
out  of  harm's  way  beneath  the  water  substituted  for  the 
fragile  side  paddle-wheel,  the  modern  warship  made  quite 
an  advance. 

Armored  Ships.  ' 

In  1854  the  French  constructed  three  floating  batteries 
with  the  speed  of  4  knots  an  hour,  armed  with  68- 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  309 

pound  guns  and  protected  by  iron  plates.  They  were 
very  successful  in  the  Crimean  war.  In  the  same  war 
the  annihilation  of  the  Turkish  fleet  in  one  hour  by  shells 
fired  from  Russian  guns,  demonstrated  the  absolute 
necessity  of  some  protection.  The  Crimean  war  over, 
France  at  once  proceeded  to  construct  an  iron-plated 
frigate.  She  took  the  "  Gloire,"  a  wooden  two-decker, 
removed  the  upper  deck  and  used  the  weight  thus  gained 
to  carry  4!  inch  armor  from  end  to  end.  She  had  no 
ram,  but  the  iron  plates  made  her  bow  strong.  This 
ship  was  fitted  with  sail  and  steam  power,  and  could 
make  13  knots  an  hour.  Her  appearance  alarmed  the 
English;  they  at  once  set  to  work,  and  in  1859  pro- 
duced the  "  Warrior,"  made  of  iron  and  especially 
designed  to  carry  armor.  She  was  420  feet  long,  and 
had  a  great  patch  of  plate  218  feet  long,  4^  inches  thick 
over  her  battery  and  water  line  amidships.  The  same 
year  the  French  laid  down  two  more  ironclad  ships,  the 
"  Magenta "  and  the  "  Solferino,"  and  fitted  these  with 
rams. 

First  English  Turret  Ship. 

In  1860  Captain  Coles,  of  the  English  navy,  submitted 
a  plan  for  a  ship  to  carry  nine  conical  turrets,  each  to 
contain  a  pair  of  guns.  The  first  English  turret  ship 
was  the  "  Royal  Sovereign,"  a  three-decker  cut  down  to 
Captain  Coles'  plan,  plated  on  the  water  line  and  above 
with  4^-inch  iron,  with  4  turrets,  10  inches  thick  in  the 
exposed  positions  and  5  inches  thick  elsewhere.  She 
was  tried  July,  1864,  and  accepted  soon  afterward. 

American  Ironclads. 

In  1 86 1,  Captain  Eads,  6*f  St.  Louis,  made  some 
Mississippi  gunboats  with  curved  decks  and  plated  with 
thin  iron.  These  were  the  first  ironclads  the  United 
States  used  in  warfare,  and  in  the  curved  deck  of  Captain 


3IO  THE    PASSING    OF    SPAIN    AND 

Eads  we  have  the  prototype  of  the  protective  deck  of 
to-day. 

Monitor. 

In  1862  appeared  Ericsson's  "  Monitor,"  especially 
designed  as  a  light-draft  boat,  fitted  to  navigate  shallow 
harbors  and  rivers  and  to  be  impregnable  to  the  fire  of 
forts.  Her  length  was  1 73  feet,  beam  42  feet  and  6  inches, 
side  armor  5  inches,  turret,  8  iron  plates  each  i  inch 
thick.  The  turret  inside  was  20  feet  in  diameter  and  9 
feet  in  height,  and  carried  two  ii-inch  guns,  firing  with 
15  pounds  of  powder  a  projectile  weighing  166  pounds. 
The  service  charge  was  afterward  increased  to  45  pounds. 
Had  such  a  charge  been  used  in  her  memorable  battle 
at  Hampton  Roads,  it  is  doubtful  if  the  casemates  of  the 
"  Virginia  "  would  have  withstood  her  attack. 

• 
How  Warships  are  Classed. 

The  boy  who  asked  his  father  the  difference  between 
a  battle-ship  and  a  cruiser,  and  was  answered  that  the 
battle-ship  was  one  named  after  a  State  and  the  cruiser 
one  named  after  a  city,  may  have  been  satisfied  for  the 
moment,  but  his  confidence  in  his  father's  infallibility 
will  sometime  receive  a  rude  shock. 

One  may  take  up  a  newspaper  and  read  that  Congress 
has  authorized  the  building  of  a  ship  of  a  definite  dis- 
placement to  carry  as  thick  armor  and  as  heavy  guns  as  are 
practicable.  The  displacement  alone,  unless  the  cost  be 
attached,  is  the  only  definite  quantity  named. 

Dispiacement. 

Displacement  is  the  weight  of  the  ship  complete,  and 
is  measured  by  the  weight  of  water  she  displaces  when 
afloat.  It  is  not  to  be  confused  with  tonnage,  which 
means  how  much  she  can  carry. 

Usually  the  basis  for  the  designer  is  the  displacement, 
which  may  be  likened  to  a  bank  account,  in  exchange  for 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  311 

which  he  may  have  certain  things  whose  total  weight 
must  not  exceed  his  -proposed  displacement.  These  are 
the  hull,  engines,  fittings,  provisions,  coal,  stores,  ammu- 
nition, armor,  guns,  etc.  Their  total  weight,  as  we  have 
seen,  is  limited,  but  in  what  proportion  shall  he  dispose 
of  them  ?  That  will  depend  upon  the  requirements  of 
the  kind  of  ship  he  is  to  build. 

Class  Requirements. 

If  a  cruiser  to  catch  unarmed  merchantmen,  speed  is 
the  prime  requisite.  If  a  cruiser  capable  of  overcoming 
other  cruisers  she  is  likely  to  meet,  more  allowance  will 
be  made  for  armor  and  guns.  If  a  battleship,  armor 
and  guns  will  receive  the  first  consideration.  If  a  tor- 
pedo boat,  to  make  its  way  unseen  in  a  foggy  night,  the 
maximum  speed  and  minimum  size  will  be  required. 
All  these  types  make  fairly  distinct  classes.  Let  us  see 
what  will  be  required  of  the  cruiser. 

Cruiser's  Duties. 

1.  To   destroy  commerce   by  capturing  unarmed  or 
lightly  armed  merchantmen  and  also  by  creating  such 
terror  that  merchantmen  will  not  dare  put  to  sea  when 
the  cruiser  is  known  to  be  abroad. 

2.  To  protect  commerce  by  "  convoying "  or  accom- 
panying as  a  guard,  merchant  fleets  through  the  dan- 
gerous parts  of  the  route  or  from  port  to  port. 

3.  To  protect  commerce  by  clearing  the  route  from 
hostile  cruisers. 

4.  To  attack  unprotected  coasts  or  those  but  poorly 
fortified,   and  by  their  theatening  presence  compel  the 
enemy  to  retain  ships  and  men  for  defense  that  he  would 
otherwise  use  in  an  attack  elsewhere. 

5.  To    carry  on   small   wars   at   a  distance   where   a 
powerful  fleet  is  not  needed,  and  to  make  reprisals. 

6.  To  act  as  scouts,  to  be  the  "  eyes  of  the  fleet"     It 
is  -important  that  they  have  great  speed  to  do  this,  as 


312  THE    PASSING    OF    SPAIN    AND 

after  an  enemy  is  sighted  every  hour  of  time  or  fraction 
thereof  that  may  be  given  the  opposing  commander  for 
preparation  is  valuable. 

7.  To  keep  up  communication  between  a  squadron 
and  the  base  of  supplies. 

8.  To  form  the  front,  rear,  and  wings  of  a  fleet  when 
in  motion,  and  to  be  the  first  to  discover  the  enemy. 

9.  To  make  blockades  effective  by  being  able  to  catch 
the   fastest  merchantmen.      To    be  sure    the    monitor 
"Terror "did  capture  a  prize  off  Havana,   but   it  was 
because  the  prize   was  within   range  of  the    monitor's 
guns  when  discovered.     A  hunter  doesn't  take  a  bull  dog 
to  capture  a  fox. 

Commerce  Destroyer. 

Suppose  we  want  a  cruiser  to  act  as  a  commerce 
destroyer;  she  must  have  speed  enough  to  catch  the 
fastest  merchantmen  afloat,  and  sufficient  gun-power  to 
overcome  them  when  caught.  That  she  may  have  speed, 
the  most  powerful  engines  must  be  given  her,  and  that 
she  may  keep  at  sea  for  a  long  time,  large  supplies  of 
coal  must  be  carried,  while  enough  protection  must  be 
given  to  the  "vital  parts"  of  the  cruiser  to  defend  them 
from  any  guns  the  merchantman  may  carry. 

Vitals. 

The  parts  that  must  be  defended  are  the  engines,  the 
magazines  and  the  steering  gear ;  only  less  urgent  is 
defense  for  the  guns.  How  is  it  given  ?  The  "  vitals  " 
of  the  ship  will  be  placed  below  the  water-line  because 
few  projectiles  except  plunging-shot  at  close  range  will 
penetrate  much  below  the  water.  The  "  vitals "  will 
further  be  covered  overhead  by  a  "  protective  deck." 

Protective  Deck. 

This  protective  deck  extending  the  whole  length  of  the 
ship  and  from  side  to  side  much  resembles  a  huge 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  313 

inverted  platter.  On  the  sides  and  ends  it  is  below  the 
waterline,  but  it  slopes  or  curves  upward  from  the  sides, 
until  over  the  middle  part  of  the  ship  it  is  as  high,  or  a 
little  higher,  than  the  water,  and  presents  a  flat,  or  nearly 
flat,  surface,  like  the  bottom  of  the  platter.  This  deck  is 
made  of  excellent  steel,  ranging  in  different  ships  from 
one  to  six  inches  in  thickness.  The  slopes  are  thickest  and 
are  intended  to  present  an  inclined  surface,  from  which 
shot  and  shell  will  glance  without  penetrating.  Along  the 
middle  part  of  the  ship,  between  the  slopes  and  the  outer 
wall,  bunkers  (coal  bins)  are  arranged.  These  also  assist 
in  protection,  for  a  foot  of  coal  is  equal  to  about  one  inch 
of  wrought-iron,  or  half  an  inch  of  steel  in  this  respect. 
Next,  the  guns  will  need  attention. 

n   n  ?  n  _  n 


I. 

COMMERCE   DESTROYER    "MINNEAPOLIS." 

Gun  Shields. 

The  cruiser  of  this  class  will  not  mount  many  heavy 
guns.  If  4-inch  or  6-inch  guns,  they  will  be  placed  on 
the  highest  deck  and  protected  by  circular  gun  shields  of 
steel  armor  attached  to  the  gun  carriage  and  revolving 
with  it.  The  shield  will  probably  be  face-hardened  steel 
about  four  inches  in  thickness,  and  will  successfully 
resist  common  shell.  If  larger  than  6-inch  guns  they 
will  probably  be  placed  within  a  turret. 

Turret. 

The  turret  is  a  circular  steel  tower,  with  openings 
through  which  guns  project,  and  is.  made  to  turn  by 
machinery  in  any  desired  direction.  Only  the  heavy 
guns  of  the  ship  will  be  placed  within  turrets. 

Along  the  sides  of  the  ship  (broadside)  and  projecting 
through  portholes  will  be  other  guns,  and  the  space  in 
front  of  these  will  be  protected  by  light  armor. 


314  THE    I'ASSING    OF    STAIN    AND 

Double  Bottom. 

Having  provided  for  defense  against  shot  and  shell, 
let  us  see  what  next  will  be  required.  Th  :  warship  must 
stand  attacks  from  three  weapons,  the  gun,  the  ram  and 
the  torpedo.  In  cruising  an  unknown  coast  she  may 
encounter  reefs  and  shoals  not  down  on  her  chart,  or  in 
the  darkness  of  night  may  come  in  collision  with  another 
vessel.  She  will  be  protected  in  this  respect  by  giving 
her  a  double  bottom.  The  inner  and  the  outer  walls  will 
be  from  one  to  three  feet  apart,  and  the  space  interven- 
ing divided  into  numerous  little  water-tight  chambers. 
From  the  protective  deck  up  as  high  as  the  water  will 
reach  she  will  probably  have  a  cofferdam  of  cellulose, 
made  from  corn  pith,  which  has  the  peculiar  property  of 
swelling  rapidly  when  exposed  to  water,  so  any  break  in 
the  wall,  if  not  too  large,  would  be  speedily  closed  by  the 
cellulose.  Beneath  the  protective  deck  there  will  be 
several  partitions  running  across  the  ship  (transverse 
bulkheads)  and  probably  one  or  more  partitions  running 
the  whole  length  of  the  ship  (longitudinal  bulkheads). 
These  will  divide  the  ship  into  numerous  compartments, 
which  can  be  closed  by  water-tight  doors,  and  the  ship 
might  keep  afloat  indefinitely  with  two  or  perhaps  more 
of  the  compartments  flooded,  if  no  damage  were  done  to 
her  engines.  Her  engines  will  be  such  as  to  give  the 
greatest  power  with  the  least  possible  weight,  the  econ- 
omy of  fuel  not  counting  for  so  much  as  in  a  ship  used 
for  purely  commercial  purposes.  So  powerful  are  the 
engines  of  the  cruiser  that  they  would  drive  the  machin- 
ery to  furnish  the  electric  light  for  five  cities  of  50,000 
inhabitants  each.  Her  enormous  coal  bunkers  will  hold 
hundreds  of  tons  of  coal  that  she  may  make  long  voyages 
without  being  compelled  to  put  into  port. 

To  recapitulate,  then,  our  cruiser  is  protected  against 
the  ram  and  torpedo  by  her  double  bottom  and  belt  of 
corn  pith  ;  her  vitals  covered  by  the  protective  deck  and 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  315 

her  broadside  guns  by  armored  casements;  her  guns  on 
deck  by  gun  shields  and  light-weight  turrets.  Any  of  this 
armor  could  u.  penetrated  by  the  heaviest  guns,  and  the 
commerce  destroyer  must  be  able  to  show  a  clean  pair  of 
heels  to  anything  she  cannot  whip. 

Armored  Cruiser. 

The  armored  cruiser  must  be  able  to  brush  away  hos- 
tile commerce  destroyers  and  leave  the  route  clear  for 
merchantmen.  She  will  be  a  pretty  formidable  righting 
machine,  and  might  occupy  a  position  in  the  reserve  of  a 
fleet  next  the  righting  line.  We  shall  expect  to  find  in 
her,  high  speed,  greater  displacement,  heavier  guns  and 
thicker  armor  than  in  the  protected  cruiser.  The  pro- 
tective deck  will  be  thicker ;  the  armor  on  the  gun 
positions  heavier.  In  addition,  she  will  have  about  her 


J^'Jimmufj&^SF' ""• •'JP'-- *^~' ^^--m-lHfmuMiae  Tuft"  \ 


ff.  ARMOKfff    CXl/fSER-21  JUTOTS. 

ARMORED   CRUISER    "BROOKLYN." 


*wm 


JUM 

&^r 


waterline  a  belt  of  armor,  probably  seven  feet  or  seven 
and  a  half  feet  wide  and  from  two  to  twelve  inches  thick. 
This  may  extend  completely  around  her  or  along  her  side 
far  enough  to  cover  the  most  vital  parts  of  the  ship. 
About  three  feet  of  belt  will  be  above  the  waterline.  It 
is  this  belt  that  gives  her  the  name  "  armored  cruiser." 
The  ammunition  hoists  (elevators),  passing  from  the 
magazines  beneath  the.  protective  deck  up  to  the  turrets 
containing  the  guns,  will  be  protected  by  an  armored 
tube  from  three  to  ten  inches  in  thickness.  The  great 
quantity  of  coal  that  her  powerful  engines  require,  and 
other  considerations,  will  usually  forbid  her  protecting 
he  space  between  the  turret  and  protective  deck  by 
armor,  but  the  coal  will  be  arranged  along  her  sides  so  as 
to  give  some  protection  in  itself.  The  cofferdam  of  eel- 


3l6  THE    PASSING   OF   SPAIN    AND 

lulose,  made  from  corn  pith,  or  some  similar  substance, 
will  be  thicker,  the  hull  heavier  and  stronger,  with  double 
bottom  like  the  cruiser  of  the  other  class.  The  "  Brook- 
lyn," a  fine  armored  cruiser,  is  divided  below  the  deck  by 
twelve  transverse  and  two  longitudinal  bulkheads,  and 
above  the  deck  by  ten  tranverse  bulkheads,  which  are 
again  subdivided  into  140  compartments.  None  of  the 
bulkheads  on  our  cruisers  are  armored.  The  cofferdam 
along  the  side  above  the  armored  deck  is  filled  with  cel- 
lulose up  to  the  level  of  the  gun  deck. 

Sponsons. 

Our  armored  cruiser  will  mount  some  pretty  heavy 
guns.  In  the  United  States  navy  for  vessels  of  this 
class  they  are  8  inches;  in  the  Spanish  11.2  inches. 
Some  of  her  broadside  guns  will  be  placed  in  an  armored 
projection  resembling  a  bay  window,  called  a  "  sponson," 
which  will  enable  them  to  be  pointed  directly  ahead  or 
astern,  and  thus  increase  materially  their  area  of  fire. 

Recessed  Ports. 

Guns  in  the  bow  of  the  ship  may  look  out  of  ports 
which  have  been  notched,  depressed,  or  cut  in  to  allow 
the  gun  to  be  trained  directly  ahead.  An  arrangement 
somewhat  similar  is  sometimes  made  along  the  side  to 
give  greater  freedom  of  motion  to  the  gun,  and  ports  of 
this  character  are  said  to  be  "  recessed." 

Our  armored  cruiser  will  have  speed  sufficient  to  catch 
anything  but  the  very  fleetest  commerce  destroyers,  and 
coal  endurance  sufficient  to  make  long  voyages  from 
home.  Cruisers  have  a  high  freeboard,  that  is,  they 
stand  well  out  of  the  water,  mounting  their  guns  twenty 
feet  or  more  above  the  waterline,  which  enables  them  to 
be  used  in  rough  weather.  In  this  respect  they  possess 
a  marked  advantage  over  a  monitor  and  the  coast  defense 
battleship,  whose  guns  might  sometimes  be  almost  under 
water,  or  their  muzzles  so  far  depressed  that  if  fired  their 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  317 

projectiles  would  strike  the  tops  of  the  waves  between 
them  and  their  target. 

Conning  Tower. 

Back  of  the  forward  turret,  and  high  enough  above  the 
deck  to  give  a  good  view,  will  be  the  "  conning  tower," 
an  armored  steel  tower  pierced  by  narrow  slits  through 
which  the  commanding  officer  will  watch  the  progress  of 
the  battle  and  direct  the  movements  of  his  vessel.  This 
tower  will  be  connected  by  electric  bells,  speaking  tubes 
and  telephones  with  every  portion  of  the  ship  with  which 
the  captain  will  need  to  communicate.  The  "conning 
tower  should  be  strong  enough  to  resist  the  ordinary  fire 
to  which  it  is  likely  to  be  subjected,  and  the  electric 
wires  communicating  with  it  usually  run  through  an 
armored  tube  until  they  pass  beneath  the  protective  deck. 
Above  the  conning  tower  will  usually  be  found  a  rather 
frail  structure,  not  built  to  resist  shot  and  shell,  called 
the  "  chart  house,"  from  which  the  ship  will  be  navigated 
except  in  battle. 

Military  Masts  and  Fighting  Tops. 

Cruisers  of  this  class  usually  carry  what  are  known  as 
"  military  masts."  These  are  not  intended  for  the  use  of 
sails,  but  are  hollow,  tapering,  steel  structures,  about 
which  are  built  one  or  more  platforms  or  balconies,  where 
riflemen  and  machine  guns  will  be  placed.  The  fire 
from  these  will  be  expected  to  sweep  off  the  men  from 
the  exposed  positions  of  the  hostile  ships.  Our  cruiser 
will  also  be  furnished  with  powerful  electric  searchlights, 
perhaps  of  100,000  candle  power,  which  may  be  turned 
so  as  to  throw  their  rays  in  any  direction.  The  electric 
light  and  the  small  rapid-firing  gun  are  ths  warship's 
defense  against  her  small  but  terrible  enemy,  the  torpedo 
boat. 

The  armored  cruiser  will  not  be  expected  to  engage 


318  THE    PASSING    OF    SPAIN    AND 

the  battleship  unless  the  conditions  are  such  as  to  give 
her  some  advantage  to  make  up  for  her  lighter  guns  and 
thinner  armor.  If  the  battleship  had  been  injured  so 
that  she  could  not  fire  all  her  guns,  or  if  water  had 
entered  some  of  her  compartments  and  thrown  her  off 
an  even  keel,  so  that  but  few  of  her  guns  could  be 
pointed  in  some  particular  direction,  the  cruiser  might 
take  this  position,  and  by  means  of  her  superior  speed 
remain  where,  without  great  damage  to  herself,  she 
could  pour  in  a  destructive  fire  upon  the  disabled  battle- 
ship. In  general,  however,  she  will  trust  to  her  speed  to- 
protect  her  from  anything  she  cannot  whip. 

Battleships. 

Admiral  Colomb  of  England  says:  "  The  battleship  is 
a  representative  of  the  force  waiting  to  be  attacked  and 
daring  attack.  If  there  is  ever  to  come  anything  which 
is  stronger,  offensive  and  defensive,  than  the  battleship, 
she  must  disappear,  for  the  theory  on  which  she  rests  is 
that  there  is  nothing  but  another  battleship  which  is 
capable  of  offering  her  any  fair  match.  She  has  always 
to  secure  herself  against  special  attack.  The  other  day 
it  was  the  unarmored  gun  vessel  which  threatened  her; 
she  met  it  by  adding  her  medium  battery;  later  she 
was  to  be  swept  off  the  seas  by  a  swarm  of  torpedo  boats ; 
she  met  it  by  adding  the  machine  gun  battery;  at  the 
present  moment  it  is  suggested  that  rams,  pure  and 
simple,  small  and  swift,  will  be  too  much  for  her;  she 
looks  calmly  clown  and  would  like  to  see  them  try.  All 
such  threats  annoy  her,  but  she  sees  clearly  that  what- 
ever beats  her  must  take  her  place.  No  special  rams,  no 
special  torpedo  boats  can  take  up  and  hold  her  defensive 
position.  If  they  cause  her  to  disappear  they  must  fol- 
low, because  it  is  only  her  existence  which  justifies  theirs. 
I  believe  firmly  that  the  battleship,  as  a  battleship,  will 
hold  her  own  to  the  end  of  time."  • 


THE    ASCENDENCY     OF    AMERICA.  319 

Requirements. 

Since  the  battleship  is  built  to  fight  and  not  to  run, 
we  shall  expect  to  find  in  her  the  most  powerful  guns 
and  the  strongest  armor  consistent  with  her  displacement 
and  seagoing  requirements.  The  United  States  is  build- 
ing two  distinct  types  of  battleships;  one,  of  the  Indiana 
class,  with  the  low  freeboard,  called  a  coast  defense  battle- 
ship ;  the  other,  like  the  Iowa,  with  a  higher  freeboard, 
called  the  seagoing  battleship.  She  will  be  given  dis- 
placement somewhat  larger  than  the  armored  cruiser,  the 
hull  will  be  stronger,  perhaps  with  a  triple  bottom  reach- 
ing up  to  and  forming  a  shelf  on  which  her  armor  belt 
rests,  and  divided  into  numerous  water-tight  chambers. 
She  will  have  a  heavy  protective  deck,  an  armor  belt 


tU.   BATrtfSl/lP-17  K.VOTy 

BATTLESHIP   "OREGON. 


from  seven  feet  to  eight  feet  in  width  and  from  eight 
inches  to  eighteen  inches  in  thickness.  Above  the  pro- 
tective deck  transverse  armored  bulkheads  will  be  built 
fore  and  aft  to  stop  the  enemy's  shells  which  come  in  at 
the  stern  and  bow.  Along  the  sides,  above  the  armor 
belt  connecting  the  bulkheads,  armor  will  be  placed  suf- 
cient  to  keep  out  medium  gun  fire,  that  is,  common  shells 
and  projectiles  from  guns  six  inches  and  smaller.  The 
latest  five  and  six-inch  guns  have  shown  on  the  proving 
ground  their  ability  to  pierce  armor  thicker  than  that 
usually  carried  to  protect  the  secondary  battery  of  our 
battleships,  but  in  actual  battle,  with  the  gun  and  target 
each  in  motion  and  the  armor  inclined  at  an  angle  to  the 
projectile,  normal  hits  are  likely  to  be  few.  Then  the 
armor  piercing  shell,  because  of  its  thick  wall,  cannot 
carry  so  large  a  bursting  charge  as  the  common  shell,  so 


32O  THE     PASSING   OF    SPAIN    AND 

its  effect  within  the  ship  would  not  be  so  terrible  as  that 
of  the  other. 

Redoubt. 

Since  this  armor  must  be  so  heavy  (perhaps  one-third 
of  the  entire  displacement  of  the  ship  is  given  to  it), 
it  will  be  impossible  to  completely  cover  the  ship  with  it, 
and  so  we  shall  find  it  in  the  form  of  a  huge  steel  box 
(redoubt)  extending  far  enough  ahead  and  astern  to 
include  within  its  walls  the  machinery  moving  the 
turrets,  the  ammunition  hoists  and  the  most  important 
parts  of  the  ship  above  the  armored  deck.  It  is  expected 
that  considerable  portions  of  the  bow  and  stern  above  the 
protective  deck  might  and  probably  will  be  shot  away 
in  action,  but  unless  our  constructors  are  wrong  in  their 
calculations,  this  might  be  done  and  the  battleship  still 
be  able  to  maintain  a  most  formidable  resistance.  The 
destruction  of  the  unarmored  bow  may  impede  the  speed 
of  the  ship  and  cause  her  to  steer  badly,  and  water 
coming  in  here  or  at  the  stern  may  put  the  battleship  on 
an  uneven  keel,  perhaps  to  such  an  extent  that  she  might 
be  troubled  to  bring  her  guns  to  bear  on  an  enemy.  In 
such  positions  she  would  present  an  inviting  target  for 
the  attack  of  the  torpedo  boat  or  the  ram. 

Primary  and  Secondary  Battery. 

The  batteries  of  our  battleship  are  known  as  primary 
and  secondary.  In  the  primary  battery  are  the  large 
guns  from  8-inch  to  1 3-inch  with  which  she  will  attack 
the  thick  armor  of  her  opponents  over  the  vitals  and  the 
opposing  heavy  guns.  The  primary  battery  should  be 
supplemented  by  smaller  rapid-fire  guns  from  4-inch  to 
6-inch  and  with  these  she  will  attack  the  unarmored  or 
thinly  armed  portions  of  the  opposing  ship  and  the  port- 
holes through  which  the  heavy  guns  look  out. 

The  secondary  battery  will  be  made  up  of  smaller 
rapid-fire  guns,  such  as  Maxim,  Nordenfeldt,  Hotchkiss, 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  321 

Driggs-Schroeder  or  Catling,  whose  projectiles  range  in 
size  from  that  of  a  rifle  ball  up  to  a  i2-pounder  and  fire 
from  30  times  for  the  latter  to  800  or  1,000  times  for  the 
.small  machine  guns.  With  these  she  will  sweep  away 
all  men  from  the  exposed  positions  on  the  hostile  deck 
and  defend  herself  when  attacked  by  the  torpedo  boat. 

Barbette  and  Turret. 

These  in  the  battleship  must  be  far  more  powerful 
than  in  the  cruiser. 

The  barbette  is  a  steel  tower  intended  to  protect  the 
heavy  rollers  on  which  the  base  of  the  turret  rests,  the 
machinery  for  turning  it,  the  guns  within  the  turret  and 
all  the  .machinery  connected  with  them.  The  guns  look 
out  over  the  top  of  it  and  usually  in  a  battleship  it 
extends  continuously  down  to  the  protective  deck. 
Within  this  like  a  smaller  tube  within  a  larger  one  in  a 
spy-glass  is  placed  the  turret,  mounted  on  heavy  rollers 
with  suitable  machinery  for  turning  it  and  pierced  with 
port-holes  through  which  guns  project. 

The  barbettes  show  very  plainly  in  the  pictures  of  the 
monitor  "  Monterey  "  and  the  battleship  "  Maine,"  and 
look  like  large  hoops  encircling  the  turrets  at  the  base. 

The  Modern  Warship. 

Our  warships  are  now  propelled  by  engines  of  over 
20,000  horse-power,  and  in  addition  have  numerous 
auxiliary  engines  for  heating,  lighting,  ventilating  and 
working  different  parts  of  the  ships.  The  "  Columbia  " 
has  ninety-four  engines  and  pumps.  The  boilers  of  the 
"  Iowa  "  present  more  than  an  acre  of  heating  surface. 
The  "  Indiana,"  if  used  as  a  ram  at  full  speed,  would 
strike  with  force  sufficient  to  lift  100,000  tons  one  foot. 
One  filling  of  the  ammunition  magazines  of  the  "  Kear- 
sarge"  cost  $383,197. 

The  report  of  the  chief  of  the  bureau  of  equipment 
shows  that  last  year  the  cruiser  "  New  York  "  used  her 

21 


322     (  THE    PASSING    OF    SPAIN"    AND 

coal  as  follows  :  For  moving  the  ship,  2,090  tons ;  for  dis- 
tilling water  for  her  engines  and  crew,  831  tons ;  for  run- 
ning her  pumps,  1,049  tons;  for  lighting  the  ship,  1,431 
tons;  heating,  453  tons;  cooking,  88  tons;  steam 
launches,  123  tons,  and  ventilating,  1,064  tons. 

Apportionment  of  Weight. 

In  the  construction  of  a  battleship  of  1 1,290  tons,  4,540- 
tons  will  be  given  up  to  the  hull ;  3,630  to  armor,  pro- 
tective deck  and  cofferdam;  1,000  tons  to  her  guns  and 
ammunition;  1,170  tons  to  her  machinery,  stores,  etc.; 
625  tons  for  her  coal;  325  tons  allowed  for  her  crew 
equipment  and  outfit,  and  the  whole  complete  will  cost 
$5,000,000. 

The  battleship  of  to-day  represents  a  compromise  of 
the  ideas  of  numerous  designers.  Ever  since  the  use  of 
the  explosive  shell  there  has  been  a  steady  fight  between 
the  armor  and  the  gun,  first  one  ahead  and  then  the 
other.  In  the  beginning  it  was  possible  to  cover  the 
whole  ship  with  armor,  but  to-day,  when  a  1 3-inch  gun 
will  penetrate  22  inches  of  steel  at  one  mile,  only  the 
most  vital  parts  of  the  ship  can  be  covered,  leaving  the 
ends  exposed.  Some  critics  contend  that  with  the  bow 
or  stern  shot  away  so  much  water  would  be  let  in  that 
the  vessel  would  be  almost  unmanageable,  or  perhaps  in 
the  case  of  one  like  the  "  Indiana,"  whose  center  of 

fravity  was  high,  would  even  capsize.     Nevertheless,  the 
attleship  has  the  confidence  of  her  designers. 

Admiral  Sampson,  in  North  American  Review,  says 
of  her:  "  She  mounts  heavy  guns  to  pierce  the  armor  of 
her  enemies;  she  mounts  numerous  guns  of  lighter  cali- 
bre to  enable  her  to  meet  similar  fire  from  all  sorts  of 
craft  and  to  destroy  the  quick-moving  torpedo  boats, 
which  would  escape  the  slow- working  heavy  guns.  She 
carries  armor  to  protect  herself  against  any  but  the 
heaviest  projectiles,  and,  so  far  as  possible,  against  even 


THE    ASCENDANCY    OF    AMERICA.  323 

these.  She  carries  torpedoes  to  destroy  an  enemy  who 
may,  in  the  manoeuvres  of  battle,  come  within  her  reach. 
She  carries  such  a  supply  of  coal  and  ammunition  as  will 
enable  her  to  perform  her  duty  between  the  times  when 
she  can  renew  her  supply.  Being  essentially  a  fighting 
machine,  she  does  not  require  high  speed  to  enable  her 
to  escape  from  an  enemy.  When  war  shall  come  between 
any  of  the  great  nations  which  depend  in  whole  or  in  part 
upon  their  naval  strength,  it  will  be  the  battleship  which 
will  settle  the  issue." 

The  behavior  of  his  ships  at  Santiago  shows  that  his 
confidence  was  well  placed. 

Monitor. 

The  name  of  the  first  of  a  series  of  boats  of  peculiar 
construction  built  by  Ericsson  has  come  to  designate  a 
type.  The  characteristics  of  the  monitor  are  its  low 
freeboard,  thick  armor  and  armament  of  a  few  heavy 
guns.  Their  engines  are  comparatively  light,  and  the 
"  Monterey,"  the  fastest  in  the  United  States  service,  has 
a  record  of  only  13.6  knots  under  the  most  favorable 
circumstances. 

Cause  of  Popularity. 

The  theatrical  appearance  of  the  first  monitor,  and  its 
excellent  service  at  a  critical  moment,  seem  to  have  given 
it  a  somewhat  higher  value  in  the  eyes  of  most  Americans 
than  its  abilities  will  justify.  It  is  a  most  useful  vessel 
within  its  sphere,  but  that  sphere  is  limited.  Secretary 
Long  says  in  his  report :  "  There  is  no  advantage  to  be 
gained  by  building  ships  of  this  description.  Such  a  vessel 
cannot  attain  to  high  speed.  It  can  neither  overtake  nor 
escape  from  a  battleship.  Its  comparative  small  ness  of 
target,  usually  mentioned  as  one  of  its  chief  advantag  s, 
is  apparent  rather  than  real,  for  that  feature  of  the  battle- 
ship which  changes  the  size  of  the  target,  although  vul- 


324  THE    PASSING    OF    SPA IX    AXD 

nerable,  is  not  indispensable  to  the  safety  or  fighting 
efficiency  of  the  vessel.  The  chief  defect  to  be  found  is 
the  serious  disadvantage  under  which  guns  are  fought  in 
any  but  the  smoothest  water." 

Duties. 

A  boat  of  this  class  lies  low  in  the  water,  is  light  of 
draft  and  not  fitted  for  work  in  heavy  seas.  As  harbor 
defense  boats  they  can  render  excellent  service,  their 
light  draft  permitting  them  to  move  about  in  the  water 
where  an  opposing,  heavy  draft  battleship  could  not  fol- 
low, and  thus  choose  their  own  ground  and  distance  at 
which  they  fight.  If  the  monitor  elected  to  fight  the 
battleship  at  long  range,  as  she  perhaps  would,  the  small 
target  she  presents  and  her  heavy  guns  would  be  decid- 
edly in  her  favor,  as  the  battleship  could  get  but  little 
good  out  of  its  secondary  battery  of  rapid-firers  if  fight- 
ing at  more  than  2,500  yards.  The  low  speed  of  the 
monitor  gives  any  other  ship  the  option  of  accepting  or 
declining  battle  with  it.  It  can  only  fight  when  the 
"other  fellow"  is  willing. 

Construction. 

The  monitors  of  the  United  States  range  in  length 
from  200  feet  in  the  "  Jason,"  "  Nahant"  and  "  Lehigh  " 
class,  to  259  feet  4  inches  for  the  "  Terror  "  class,  and  289 
feet  for  our  largest  one,  the  "  Puritan."  Beam,  46  feet, 
55  feet  9  inches,  and  60  feet  li  inches;  draft,  n  feet  6 
inches,  14  feet  7  inches,  and  18  feet  i  inch,  respectively, 
for  the  classes  named. 

The  bottom  will  be  double,  with  numerous  water-tight 
chambers  coming  up  to  within  3  feet  of  the  waterline, 
where  it  forms  a  shelf  on  which  an  armor-belt  of  from  5 
inches  to  13  inches  in  thickness  and  7  feet  in  width  rests. 
A  protective  deck  from  2  to  3  inches  in  thickness  heads 
the  armor-belt  at  the  top. 


THE  ASCENDENCY  OF  AMERICA.  325 

The  barbettes  and  turrets  of  the  later  monitors  will  be 
from  9  inches  to  14  inches,  and  the  conning  tower  8 
inches  to  10  inches  in  thickness,  of  good  Harveyized 
steel.  Originally  the  monitors  were  planned  to  carry 
four  heavy  guns.  The  rise  of  the  torpedo-boat  has  com- 
pelled them  to  strengthen  the  superstructure  and  mount 
some  rapid-fire  guns.  Of  course,  guns  in  this  position 
are  as  much  exposed  on  the  monitor  as  on  any  type  of 
ship. 

Turrets. 

The  tops  of  the  turrets  of  monitors,  i^  inch  steel, 
expose  a  vulnerable  point  to  a  plunging  fire.  This  would 
render  them  unsuited  to  attack  land  batteries  at  high 
elevation. 

Within  each  turret  are  placed  two  heavy  guns,  with  a 
peculiarly  effective  device  for  "  training."  Between  the 
guns,  and  looking  through  slits,  in  a  projection  in 
the  top  of  the  turret,  called  "  sighting-hood,"  stands  the 
operator  whose  duty  it  is  to  aim  the  guns.  In  front  of 
him,  and  looking  through  two  small  openings,  are  two 
crossline,  telescopic  sights.  By  turning  a  small  hand 
wheel  he  moves  these  sights  to  the  right  or  left  until 
they  bear  on  the  target.  Another  wheel  depresses  or 
elevates  them.  These  sights,  by  a  refinement  of  mech- 
anism, are  made  to  correspond  with  the  guns,  and  so 
when  the  telescopic  sight  in  the  sighting-hood  points 
directly  at  the  target  the  corresponding  gun  in  the  turret 
is  properly  aimed. 

Electricity,  steam,  or  hydraulic  power  supply  the  force 
required  to  move  the  guns  and  the  machinery  of  the 
turret.  In  the  early  monitors  the  turret  revolved  upon  a 
spindle,  but  in  our  later  ones  the  spindle  has  been  dis- 
carded for  heavy  rollers  on  the  decks. 


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[326] 


THE  ASCENDENCY  OF  AMERICA.  327 

Torpedo  Boats. 

The  torpedo  boat  seems  to  have  made  its  first  success- 
ful appearance  during  our  late  Civil  War.  It  was  then  a 
very  crude  affair.  R.  O.  Crowley,  electrician  for  the 
Confederate  States,  has  told  of  some  of  the  difficulties 
under  which  they  labored,  and  their  results.  One  of 
their  most  successful  trials  was  the  attempt  to  blow  up 
the  Unked  States  ship  "Minnesota."  With  a  small 
launch  fitted  with  a  long  spar  at  her  bow,  to  which  was 
attached  the  torpedo  arranged  to  explode  upon  contact, 
they  steamed,  in  the  darkness  of  the  night,  through  the 
blockading  fleet  without  their  identity  being  discovered, 
although  frequently  challenged  by  lookouts.  The 
""  Minnesota"  was  found,  the  torpedo  was  lowered,  the 
rspar  run  out,  and  a  dash  made  for  her  side.  Although 
the  torpedo  was  loaded  only  with  gunpowder,  the  explo- 
sion was  terrific,  and  resulted  in  such  severe  damage  to 
the  "  Minnesota  "  that  she  was  compelled  to  be  docked. 
The  torpedo  boat  escaped  in  safety. 

Pushing. 

It  was  in  a  similar  boat,  ana  with  a  spar  torpedo,  that 
Lieutenant  Cushing,  of  the  United  States  Navy,  made 
his  successful  attack  upon  the  ironclad  "  Albemarle." 

"  Cigar  Boat." 

One  of  the  most  heroic  achievements  of  any  navy  was 
that  of  the  "  cigar  boat,"  constructed  at  Mobile,  Ala., 
.and  sent  by  rail  to  Charleston  in  the  summer  of  1863. 
It  was  made  of  boiler  iron,  was  about  30  feet  long,  4  feet 
wide,  and  9  feet  in  depth.  The  interior  was  reached  by 
two  manholes,  in  the  tops  of  which  were  glass  bull's-eyes, 
through  which  the  navigator  looked  when  directing  his 
craft.  It  was  moved  by  a  screw  propeller,  and  the  power 
furnished  by  a  crank  turned  by  the  crew.  Along  the 
sides  were  wings  which  could  be  adjusted  at  an  angle. 
When  the  front  of  the  wings  were  inclined  downward 


328  THE    PASSING    OF    SPAIN    AND 

and  the  screw  turned  the  boat  would  dive;  upon  their 
being  reversed  it  would  come  to  the  surface.  Ordinarily 
it  floated  with  only  the  manholes  a  little  above  the  water. 
It  seems  to  have  been  the  prototype  of  the  "  Holland 
Boat."  A  tube  of  mercury  served  to  mark  its  depth  in 
the  water. 

It  was  intended  that  this  boat  should  pass  under  the 
vessel  attacked,  towing  in  its  wake  a  torpedo  which 
would  be  exploded  by  contact  or  electricity  when  the 
torpedo  touched  the  vessel.  There  was  not  sufficient 
water  in  Charleston  harbor  to  allow  this,  and  the  boat 
was  rigged  with  a  spar  torpedo.  Thrice  she  sunk  in  her 
trials  with  the  loss  of  all  on  board,  but  although  service 
in  her  seemed  certain  death,  there  never  was  any  diffi- 
culty in  securing  a  new  crew  for  her.  After  thirty  men 
had  lost  their  lives  on  board  her,  Lieutenant  Geo.  E. 
Dixon  of  Alabama  secured  as  a  volunteer  crew  Captain 
J.  F.  Carlson  of  the  army,  Arnold  Becker,  C.  Simpkins, 

Jas.  A.  Wicks,  F.  Collins, Ridgeway  and  directed 

a  final  attack  against  the  United  States  ship  "  Housa- 
tonic,"  which  was  reported  the  next  morning  to  have 
been  sunk  by  a  torpedo,  and  nothing  was  heard  of  an  at- 
tacking boat.  Long  afterward,  when  the  Government 
attempted  to  raise  the  " Housatonic,"  the  little  "cigar 
boat,"  with  its  gallant  crew,  was  found  not  far  from  her 
victim. 

The  history  of  the  spar  torpedo  in  America  may  be 
summed  up  as  follows:  United  States  ship  "  New  Iron- 
sides" seriously  injured  off  Charleston,  October,  1863; 
sloop-of-war  "  Housatonic "  destroyed  off  Charleston, 
February,  1864 ;  monitor  "  Osage  "  destroyed  by  drifting 
torpedo,  March,  1865  ;  the  Confederate  ironclad  "Albe- 
marle"  destroyed  October  27,  1864.  All  of  the  torpedoes 
were  charged  with  common  black  powder. 

The  brilliant  achievements  of  the  torpedo  boat  in  the 
Civil  War  inclined  the  navies  of  Europe  to  look  upon  it 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  329 

with  favor,  and  they  soon  began  to  make  experiments. 
The  weapon  used  at  that  time  was,  as  we  have  seen,  the 
spar  torpedo,  and  this  meant  that  it  was  necessary  to 
come  alongside  and  in  contact  with  the  enemy  before  the 
boat  was  discovered  and  disabled. 

Small' rapid-fire  guns  and  modern  searchlights  were 
not  then  in  use,  and  the  boat  in  the  hands  of  fearless 
men  on  a  dark  or  foggy  night  was  a  dreaded  and  dan- 
gerous enemy. 

Late  in  the  '6o's  the  "  Whitehead  "  torpedo  was  intro- 
duced, and  in  the  early  'yo's  European  nations  took  it  up 
and  began  the  construction  of  boats  especially  designed 
to  carry  it.  The  first  were  then  about  57  feet  long,  7^ 
feet  wide,  with  90  horse-power  engines,  giving  a  speed  of 
1 6  knots.  To-day  they  are  from  100  feet  to  200  feet 
long,  1 2  feet  to  20  feet  wide,  and  driven  by  6,000  horse- 
power engines,  giving  them  a  speed  of  30  knots  and  up- 
ward, and  fitted  with  a  "  Whitehead "  or  some  similar 
automobile  torpedo  supposed  to  have  an  effective  range 
up  to  800  yards. 

There  is  no  well  marked  line  dividing  the  coast  defense 
torpedo  boat  from  the  sea-going  torpedo  boat  and  the 
latter  from  the  torpedo  boat  destroyer.  The  safety  of  the 
boat  depends  upon  its  small  size  and  extreme  speed. 
If  the  size  is  increased  to  give  more  speed  and  sea-going 
qualities,  it  defeats  the  very  object  for  which  it  was  origin- 
ally intended ;  i.  e.,  a  boat  small  enough  to  approach  the 
enemy  under  cover  of  fog,  smoke  or  darkness  without 
being  discovered  and  disabled  before  it  is  within  effective 
range  of  its  torpedo. 

The  old  boats  were  fitted  with  three  torpedo  tubes, 
two  on  deck  and  one  in  the  bow.  The  bow  tube  is  now 
discontinued,  as  the  boat  under  motion  throws  up  a  big 
bow  wave  that  interferes  with  the  accurate  firing  of  the 
bow  tube,  and  further,  before  the  torpedo  can  gain  head, 
way,  the  boat,  at  a  high  rate  of  speed,  is  likely  to  run  it 


33O  THE    PASSING    OF    SPAIN    AND 

down.     The  torpedo  boat  will  also  mount  machine  guns 
and  light  rapid-fire  guns,  and  the  torpedo  boat  destroyer, 
rather     heavier     rapid-fire     guns,    6-pounders    and    12 
pounders,  to  enable  them  to  destroy  the  torpedo  boat. 

Duties  of  the  Torpedo  Boat. 

It  is  intended  that  a  boat  costing  a  few  thousand 
dollars,  and  manned  by  a  score  of  men,  will  attempt  to 
destroy  the  expensive  cruiser  or  warship  costing  millions. 
If  discovered,  her  fate  is  almost  certain  ;  it  is  upon  secrecy 
that  her  success  depends.  She  relies  upon  her  small 
size,  her  color  as  nearly  resembling  her  surroundings  as 
posssible,  fog,  smoke  or  darkness.  The  torpedo  boat 
must  also  act  as  the  protector  of  the  fleet  from  hostile 
torpedo  boats.  To  destroy  these  she  must  discover  them, 
and  to  discover  them  it  is  necessary  that  the  size  and 
surface  of  the  guarding  boat  should  not  be  so  plainly 
visible  to  the  attacking  boats  that  they  will  make  her 
out  in  time  to  avoid  her.  The  modern  torpedo  boat 
destroyer  with  its  large  size  (400  tons)  may,  under  ordi- 
nary circumstances,  defeat  its  own  purpose. 

Rough  Water. 

The  extreme  speed  of  the  torpedo  boat  is  made  in 
still  water;  with  its  small  tonnage  and  light  draft  the 
speed  materially  decreases  in  rough  water,  while  in  a 
heavy  sea-way  they  would  fall  an  easy  prey  to  a  fast 
cruiser. 

Sailors  f  ~.ken  from  their  pleasant  quarters  in  larger  ves- 
sels find  the  change  to  the  torpedo  boat  irksome,  and 
many  stories  are  afloat  as  to  the  danger  of  such  service 
even  in  times  of  peace.  It  will  be  interesting  to  note 
that  Massachusetts  has  annually  40,000  of  her  sailor  popu- 
lation who  earn  a  livelihood  in  fishing  boats  of  an  average 
of  5O-tons  displacement. 


THE  ASCENDENCY  OF  AMEEICA.          331 

Torpedo  Boat  in  Action. 

No  vessel  has  yet,  when  in  motion  on  the  open  sea,  been 
destroyed  by  the  "  Whitehead  "  torpedo. 

If  a  torpedo  boat  headed  directly  for  her  enemy  was 
discovered  at  2,400  yards,  it  would  be  necessary  for  her  to 
get  within  500  yards  or  600  yards  before  she  could  use 
her  torpedo.  Even  at  a  high  rate  of  speed  she  would 
thus  be  exposed  to  the  fire  of  6-pounders,  i2-pounders  and 
large  rapid-fire  guns  for  at  least  three  minutes.  A  12- 
pounder  in  that  time  would  easily  discharge  from  20  to 
30  aimed  shots,  one  of  which,  well  placed,  would  disable 
the  approaching  boat.  The  larger  rapid-fire  guns,  six- 
inch,  could  discharge  in  that  time  1 5  to  20  aimed  shots, 
any  one  of  which  would,  perhaps,  be  effective. 

The  Japanese,  when  tired  after  a  battle,  with  ammu- 
nition low,  dared  not  risk  a  night  action  with  a  fleet  when 
Chinese  torpedo  boats  were  known  to  be  in  the  vicinity. 
The  Chinese  boats  at  the  battle  of  the  Yalu  did  no 
effective  work.  In  theory  they  should  have  dashed  into 
the  battle  under  cover  of  the  smoke  and  wrought  their 
enemies  great  damage.  One  tried  and  its  engines  went 
wrong.  Another  one  fired  three  times  at  close  quarters 
and  missed  each  time. 

Torpedoes  can  do  little  against  battleships  while  their 
secondary  battery  is  in  good  shape.  Three  attacked  the 
"  Olympia  "  at  Manilla ;  one  was  quickly  sunk,  one  re- 
tired, and  the  third  was  beached  to  prevent  sinking. 

The  torpedo  boat's  time  will  come  at  the  close  of  the 
battle,  when  the  ships  are  partially  disabled,  the  crews 
tired,  the  smoke  hanging  over  the  scene,  and  the  rapid- 
fire  battery  dismounted  or  silenced,  then  after  a  ship  is 
disabled,  perhaps  on  uneven  keel,  she  will  fall  an  easy 
prey  to  the  torpedo  boat. 

The  moral  effect  of  the  torpedo  boat  will  have  a  very 
real  influence  upon  warfare.  The  constant  strain  upon 
the  nerves  in  keeping  a  lookout  will  wear  upon  a  fleet, 


332  THE    PASSING   OF    SPAIN    AND 

and  the  danger  that  a  floating  fortress  costing  millions 
of  dollars  will  be  destroyed  by  the  insignificant  yet 
terrible  little  enemy  will  make  nations  careful  about 
building  larger  and  more  expensive  warships.  The 
knowledge  that  a  harbor  is  defended  by  such  a  fleet  will 
tend  to  keep  an  attacking  squadron  at  a  distance  at  least 
a  portion  of  the  time.  All  in  all,  the  very  fear  that 
torpedo  boats  incite  will  well  repay  their  construction,  if 
they  render  no  further  service.  Even  so  high  an  authority 
and  staunch  an  adherent  of  the  battleship  as  Admiral 
Colomb,  of  England,  is  beginning  to  look  with  favor  on 
boats  of  the  "  destroyer  "  class. 

"  She's  a  floating  boiler  crammed  with  fire  and  steam, 

A  dainty  toy,  with  works  just  like  a  watch  ; 
A  weaving,  working  basketful  of  tricks  — 

A  pent  volcano  and  stoppered  at  top  notch. 
She  is  Death  and  swift  Destruction  in  a  case 

(Not  the  Unseen,  but  the  Awful —  plain  in  sight). 
The  Dread  that  must  be  halted  when  afar  ; 
She's  a  concentrated,  fragile  form  of  Might ! 
She's  a  daring,  vicious  thing 
With  a  rending  deadly  sting  — 
And  she  asks  no  odds  nor  quarter  in  the  fight  !"* 

The  Automobile  Torpedo  in  Battle. 

Previous  to  this  quarter  century  the  only  torpedoes 
used  in  action  were  either  of  the  towing  or  spar  variety. 
The  development  of  the  electric  searchlight  and  rapid- 
fire  gun  rendered  these  varieties  obsolete,  and  inventive 
talent  began  to  turn  itself  to  a  torpedo  that  could  be  used 
at  longer  range. 

"Whitehead." 

The  "  Whitehead  "  torpedo,  now  most  generally  used, 
appeared  in  crude  form  in  1868.  It  is  a  long,  fish-shaped 
shell,  with  three  compartments.  The  first  chamber  con- 
tains the  explosive  charge,  the  second  chamber  the  com- 
pressed air  cylinder  furnishing  the  motive  power,  and  the 
third  chamber  the  machinery  for  turning  the  screw  pro- 

*  James  Barnes  in  "  McClure's  "  for  June,  1898. 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  333 

peller  at  the  stern.  The  torpedoes  of  to-day  are  from 
fourteen  to  eighteen  inches  in  diameter,  from  eleven  to 
eighteen  feet  long,  carry  from  120  to  220  pounds  of  gun- 
cotton,  and  can  run  about  800  yards,  the  greater  part  of 
the  distance  at  a  thirty-knot  rate. 

'•  Warhead." 

The  front  chamber  of  the  torpedo,  called  the  "  war- 
head," is  detachable,  and  contains  the  wet  gun-cotton  for 
the  charge  and  the  machinery  necessary  to  explode  it. 
The  warhead  is  kept  in  the  ammunition  magazine  and 
attached  to  the  torpedo  the  last  thing  before  entering 
action.  Wet  gun-cotton  is  used  because  it  is  one  of  the 
safest  of  the  high  explosives.  As  one  writer  has  expressed 
it,  "  Wet  gun-cotton  may  be  safely  chopped  up  with  an 
axe."  It  can  only  be  exploded  by  the  concussion  of 
another  explosive.  The  fulminate  fuse  igniting  a  small 
quantity  of  dry  gun-cotton  is  usually  used  to  ignite  the 
charge.  It  is  said  that  in  the  fight  at  Cardenas  a  pro- 
jectile struck  a  torpedo  of  the  boat  "  Winslow"  and  actu- 
ally passed  through  the  gun-cotton.  Authorities  claim 
the  shell  must  strike  the  detonating  cap  to  cause  an 
explosion. 

Discharging  Torpedo. 

The  torpedo  is  thrown  from  the  tube  by  a  light  charge 
of  powder,  and  on  its  passage  the  machinery  within  it  is 
set  in  motion  and  it  at  once  begins  to  propel  itself,  which 
gives  it  the  name  "automobile."  If  fired  directly  ahead, 
care  must  be  taken  that  the  boat  does /not  overrun  it 
before  the  torpedo  has  gathered  headway  of  its  own. 
Much  skill  is  required  in  the  use  of  the  torpedo.  If 
fired  at  a  target  which  is  in  motion,  allowance  must  be 
made  for  the  position  of  the  target  by  the  time  the  tor- 
pedo can  reach  it.  If  fired  from  the  broadside  of  a 
torpedo  boat,  allowance  must  be  made  for  the  "  acquired 
motion "  of  the  boat.  In  practice,  dummy  torpedoes 


334  THE    PASSING    OF    SPAIN    AND 

fired  from  submerged  broadside  tubes  have  sometimes 
been  broken  in  two  as  they  entered  the  water,  or  even 
become  entangled  in  the  screw  propeller  of  the  boat 
Such  an  event  would  be  highly  disastrous  in  action.  A 
warship  of  considerable  size  at  fifteen  knots  would  have 
surrounding  it  a  body  of  water  in  motion  of  considerable 
strength.  Some  authorities  say  this  would  afford  protec- 
tion from  the  torpedo. 

The  modern  torpedo  is  a  very  complicated  piece  of 
machinery,  and  costs  the  Government,  complete,  $3.500. 
It  possesses  a  contrivance  by  which  it  can  be  floated  at 
any  required  depth  so  that  it  will  strike  beneath  the 
armor  belt 

"  Howell." 

The  "  Howell "  torpedo  is  the  invention  of  an  Ameri- 
can officer,  and  differs  from  the  "  Whitehead  "  chiefly  in 
having  within  it  a  large  balance-wheel,  in  place  of  the 
compressed  air  motor,  which,  before  launching,  is  spun  up 
to  a  high  speed,  and  by  its  momentum  after  it  is  launched 
continues  to  drive  the  screw  propeller. 

Ram. 

"  There  are  many  who  are  in  love  with  '  the  small 
swift  ram,'  but  it  is  doubtful  how  far  such  a  ship  is  attain- 
able, and  how  far  she  would  be  useful  if  the  ideal  could 
be  obtained.  Ability  to  ram  depends  upon  speed  ana 
handiness  in  the  assailant  and  the  want  of  these  qualities 
in  the  assailed.  To  obtain  a  high  speed,  not  only  upon 
the  measured  mile,  but  in  a  sea-way,  the  boilers  must  be 
heavy  and  the  engines  powerful.  This  necessarily  in- 
volves a  high  displacement,  as  the  hull  must  be  strong  to 
withstand  the  jar  of  the  machinery  and  the  violent  con- 
cussion of  ramming.  If  the  ram  is  given  guns  and  armor 
she  becomes  a  battleship ;  if  she  is  left  without  them  she 
is  liable  to  be  destroyed  by  gun-fire  long  before  she  can 


*  THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  335 

use  her  sole  weapon ;  and  that  weapon  is  a  most  uncer- 
tain and  two-edged  one. " 

Early  Use. 

The  ram  was  a  well-known  and  effective  weapon  of 
ancient  naval  warfare.  Even  in  the  days  when  galleys 
were  propelled  by  rows  of  slaves  chained  to  the  bench  it 
was  often  used  with  decisive  results.  The  ram  of  the 
Greek  vessel  is  said  to  have  won  the  day  for  them  in  that 
all-important  naval  battle  with  Xerxes'  fleet  at  Salamis. 
Two  thousand  years  afterward  the  allied  Christian  fleet 
used  it  with  equal  effect  against  their  Turkish  enemies 
at  the  battle  of  Lepanto. 

With  the  development  of  sail  power  and  the  decline  of 
the  galley,  new  methods  of  warfare  found  but  little  use 
for  the  ram.  The  sea  breeze  could  not  always  be  com- 
manded, and  the  low-powered,  crushing,  splintering  pro- 
jectile took  its  place.  The  application  of  steam  again 
gave  a  motive  power  that  could  be  controlled,  and  the 
ram  once  more  came  into  prominence. 

First  Appearance  in  Modern  Times. 

March  8,  1862,  a  Federal  fleet  of  wooden  sailing  vessels 
lay  at  anchor  in  Hampton  Roads.  About  mid-day  the 
lookouts  reported  the  approach  of  a  low,  black,  unsightly 
craft,  the  long-looked-for  "  Merrimac."  Grim  and  ugly 
as  death  she  steamed  down  the  river  directly  toward  the 
frigate  "  Congress  "  and  the  sloop-of-war  "  Cumberland." 
Although  combined  the  two  mounted  74  guns,  the  shot 
fell  harmlessly  on  her  sloping  deck,  although  through 
one  open  port  she  received  some  damage,  the  muzzle 
being  knocked  off  two  guns  and  19  men  killed  or 
wounded.  But  the  fire  from  her  guns  crashed  through 
the  thin  walls  of  the  wooden  ship  with  terrible  effect. 
Selecting  the  "  Cumberland,"  she  steamed  directly  at  her 

*  Wilson's  "  Ironclads  in  Action." 


336  THE    PASSING   OF   SPAIN    AND 

helpless  victim  and  struck  her  fairly  amidships,  backed 
off  and  rained  in  a  destructive  fire  of  shot.  The  latter 
was  needless;  the  "Cumberland's  '  fate  was  already  de- 
cided, for  a  hole  in  her  side  was  made  big  enough  for  a 
man  to  enter.  Dramatic  and  terrible,  the  ram  issued 
from  the  obscurity  of  the  past  and  made  its  appearance 
in  modern  warfare. 

After  the  action  at  Hampton  Roads  numerous  rams 
were  constructed  by  either  side,  and  clever,  light  draft 
craft  proved  themselves  of  considerable  value,  especially 
in  defending  narrow  river  channels  where  the  heavier 
ships  had  little  room  for  manoeuvres. 

Battle  of  Lissa,  1876. 

The  ram  was  again  used  at  Lissa  in  the  battle  between 
the  Austrian  and  Italian  fleets.  The  Italians  had  a 
large  fleet  of  good  vessels,  but  their  admiral,  Persano, 
had  little  ability  and  less  courage.  At  last,  in  obedience 
to  repeated  demands  made  upon  him  by  his  government, 
he  set  out  across  the  Adriatic  to  attack  the  little  Aus- 
trian town  of  Lissa.  He  did  this,  although  there  was  an 
Austrian  "fleet  in  being"  commanded  by  Admiral 
Tegetthoff.  The  Italian  ships  were  far  superior  to  the 
Austrian ;  individually  the  men  were  as  brave,  but  their 
admiral,  Persano,  was  unfit  for  the  command,  and 
Tegetthoff  was  an  able  and  energetic  officer  of  long  ex- 
perience. When  the  Austrian  fleet  appeared  in  sight 
that  of  Italy  was  split  up  into  numerous  little  groups 
separated  by  miles.  Persano  attempted  to  get  them  into 
some  kind  of  order,  but  as  often  as  they  would  approach 
anything  like  a  formation  he  would  change  his  mind  and 
signal  for  something  different.  At  the  last  moment  he 
left  his  flagship  and  went  on  board  a  ram,  and  during  the 
action  half  his  commanders  had  no  knowledge  of  his 
whereabouts.  The  Austrian  ships  were  painted  black; 
the  Italian,  gray,  and  Tegetthoff  gave  the  laconic  signal 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  337 

"  ram  everything  gray."  In  his  flagshig  the  "  Ferdinand 
Maximilian  "  he  struck  the  "  Re  d'  Italian,"  and  almost 
rammed  her  through.  The  Italian  ship  sank  at  once, 
her  men  cheering  as  they  went  down.  Tegetthoff  after- 
wards said :  "  If  I  were  to  live  a  thousand  years  I  would 
never  ram  another  ship.  You  see  the  vessel  attacked  at 
one  moment,  and  the  next  800  men  sliding  into  the  sea 
with  a  vessel  following  them." 

Another  attack  by  the  Austrian  "  Kaiser,"  a  wooden 
ship  was  not  so  successful.  She  received  a  broadside  at 
close  range  and  was  set  on  fire,  and  suffered  a  great  loss 
in  men.  Persano,  on  board  the  Italian  ram,  distinguished 
himself  by  refusing  to  use  his  vessel  whenever  an  op- 
portunity offered.  Under  the  able  leadership  of  Tegett- 
hoff the  Austrians  won  a  substantial  victory. 

An  English  authority  who  has  made  an  exhaustive 
study  of  the  history  of  the  ram,  assures  us  that  there  is 
only  one  case  on  record  in  which  serious  damage  has 
been  inflicted  by  the  ram  on  any  ship  under  steam  with 
sea-room. 

If  battles  are  to  be  fought  at  long  range  and  smokeless 
powder  used,  the  ram  will  be  exposed  for  some  minutes 
to  a  severe  fire  and  when  within  torpedo  range  it  is 
liable  to  attack  from  torpedoes  as  well  as  guns,  as  all  the 
battleships  are  fitted  with  torpedo  tubes. 

"  If  the  fleets  charge  one  another  end-on,  there  may  be 
cases  when  the  ram  will  be  used,  but  there  will  be  great 
danger  then  of  end-to-end  collisions  should  the  com- 
manders on  each  side  be  determined,  and  these  will 
almost  certainly  result  in  the  loss  of  both  ships,  unless, 
indeed,  the  bows  of  the  ship  on  one  side  are  so  weak  as 
to  take  the  full  force  of  the  collision  and  to  break  it, 
More  probably  the  less  determined  man  will  swerve  at 
the  last  minute  and  expose  his  side,  as  did  Buchanan  at 
Mobile."* 

*  Wilson's  "Ironclads  in  Action." 
22 


338  THE    PASSING    OF    SPAIN    AND 

What  a  Naval  Battle  is  Like. 

"  The  battleship  has  to  carry  about  with  her  all  sorts 
of  odds  and  ends  which  arc  essential  to  her  in  peace  but 
useless  in-  war.  When  the  ship  clears  for  action  the 
boats  cannot  be  taken  below  and  must  remain  above  to 
be  shot  to  splinters  and  cause  fire.  Equally  dangerous 
and  difficult  to  dispose  of  are  wooden  companion  ladders, 
mess  tables,  benches  and  the  various  impedimentia 
usually  found  between  decks.  If  of  wood,  these  will  add 
to  the  risk  of  fire,  which  is  very  great.  \Yith  the  ship's 
upper  deck  thoroughly  cleared  of  wood,  there  will  be  no 
wreckage  to  float  and  save  the  drowning,  nor  will  the 
boats  be  of  much  use  for  saving  life  after  a  battle. 

"The  ships  will  begin  their  action  at  about  2,500  or 
3,000  yards.  Upon  the  upper  works  of  the  ship  will  fall 
most  of  the  damage  inhicted  during  the  preliminary 
cannonade.  They  will  have  been  prepared  for  the  strain 
in  every  conceivable  way.  Round  the  funnels  sacks  of 
coal  will  be  placed,  and  near  the  quick-firers,  mantlets  to 
catch  splinters.  The  conning-tower  and  the  positions 
from  which  the  ships  will  be  fought  will  also,  doubtless, 
receive  attention.  In  this  way  the  injury  done  may  be 
reduced  to  a  minimum,  but  it  will  still  be  extensive. 
The  effect  of  even  small  shells  charged  with  high  explosives 
upon  unarmored  structures  is  very  deadly.  Great  holes 
will  be  torn  in  the  outer  plating;  splinters  and  fragments 
of  side  and  shell  sent  flying  through  the  confined  space 
within ;  and  any  wood  that  may  be  about,  which  has  not 
been  thoroughly  drenched  with  water,  will  be  set  on  fire. 
The  funnels  and  ventilators  may  be  riddled  till  they 
come  down,  and  inside  them,  on  the  splinter-gratings, 
which  commonly  cross  them  at  the  level  of  the  armor- 
deck,  fragments  of  iron  and  wood  will  collect  and  obstruct 
the  draft.  If  the  ventilators  are  blocked,  and  the  flow  of 
air  to  the  stoke-hold  checked,  the  stokers  and  engine- 
room  men  will  be  exposed  to  terrible  hardships — gasping 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  339 

in  a  hot  and  vitiated  atmosphere  for  the  air  which  can- 
not reach  them.  The  boiler-force  will  fail  and  the  steam- 
pressure  sink.  It  is  true  that  nothing  of  this  kind  appears 
to  have  happened  at  the  Yalu,  but  the  fire  maintained 
there  was  not  so  accurate  as  it  would  probably  be  with 
highly-skilled  and  cool  Western  gunners. 

"At  the  close  of  the  long  range  cannonade  will  come 
the  close  action.  The  range  will  be  diminished  to  600 
yards  or  700  yards,  and  the  stronger  side  will  steam  in 
to  assure  its  victory.  This  will  be  the  most  terrible 
period  of  the  action.  Up  to  that  time,  indeed,  the  dam- 
age done  to  the  vitals  of  the  battleships  will  not  have 
been  serious,  but  no  doubt  the  internal  economy  of  these 
vessels  will  have  been  impaired.  The  heavy  quick-firers, 
judging  from  the  Yalu,  will  not,  at  long  range,  inflict 
much  injury  on  the  water-line.  It  will  be  upon  the 
upper  works,  superstructures,  military  masts,  funnels, 
ventilators,  chart-houses,  bridges  and  stacks  of  boats  an  1 
top-hamper,  that  the  hail  of  projectiles  whether  fired 
direct  or  ricochetting  from  the  water,  will  descend." ' 

Under  cover  of  the  smoke  or  taking  advantage  of 
deranged  steering-gear  or  silenced  rapid-fire  batteries, 
the  cruel  ram  and  the  deadly  torpedo  boat  will  approach 
to  administer  the  finishing  blow  to  a  partially  disabled 
antagonist.  The  nervous  strain  on  the  officers  and  crew 
at  this  period  of  the  battle  will  be  something  terrible. 

Definition  of  Terms. 

Arc  of  fire  —  That  part  of  a  circle  through  which  a 
gun  can  be  moved  and  fired.  It  is  least  in  a  broadside 
and  greatest  in  a  turret. 

Armor-clad  —  A  ship  carrying  vertical  armor,  that  is, 
a  belt,  and  on  gun  positions. 

Axial  fire  —  Fire  straight  ahead  or  astern,  parallel  to 
the  ship's  keel.  Guns  in  the  French  navy  are  arranged 

*  Wilson's  "  Ironclads  In  Action," 


34°  THE    PASSING   OF    SPAIN    AND 

to  give  powerful  fire  of  this  character.  Strong  bow  fire 
is  necessary  to  meet  torpedo  attacks  and  when  in  pursuit 
of  an  enemy.  Strong  stern  fire  is  necessary  in  a  ship 
fleet  enough  to  fight  by  drawing  her  enemies  after  her. 

Barbette  —  An  armored  tower  inside  which  the  guns 
are  revolved.  The  guns  fire  over  the  top  of  the  armor, 
and  not  through  portholes,  as  in  turrets.  On  our  best 
battleships  the  barbette  descends  from  the  turret  to  the 
protective  deck. 

Belt — The  strip  of  vertical  armor  along  the  side  of  a 
ship,  protecting  the  vitals  from  gun  fire  and  the  ram. 

Boilers,  water-tube  and  tubular —  In  the  first  the  water 
is  carried  in  small  tubes  around  which  the  fire  passes; 
in  the  second  the  fire  passes  through  tubes  around  which 
the  water  is  placed. 

Broadside  fire —  Fire  from  the  guns  placed  along  the 
side  of  a  ship  or  in  turrets  that  can  be  turned  to  fire  over 
the  ship's  side. 

Bunkers  —  The  bins  in  which  the  ship  carries  her  coal. 
When  full  they  also  serve  for  protection. 

Casemate  —  The  armored  position  in  which  a  gun  is 
placed. 

Coal  endurance  —  The  distance  a  ship  can  steam  at 
moderate  speed  without  recoaling. 

Commerce  destroyer— -  A  ship  especially  fitted  t:>  prey 
on  the  enemy's  commerce. 

Compound  engines  —  Having  two  cylinders,  one 
larger  than  the  other.  Steam  is  used  at  high  pressure  in 
the  small  cylinder,  at  a  lower  pressure  in  the  larger 
cylinder.  Triple  expansion  engines  have  three  cylinders; 
quadruple  expansion  engines  four  cylinders. 

Cordite  —  A  kind  of  smokeless  powder  used  in  English 
service. 

Dry  dock  —  A  clock  into  which  a  ship  can  be  floated, 
the  entrance  closed,  and  the  water  pumped  out,  that 
workmen  may  get  at  any  part  of  the  ship. 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  341 

"  Fleet  in  bein^  "  —  A  fleet  free  to  move  and  threaten 

O 

any  point  it  chooses.  It  is  like  a  strong  body  of  cavalry 
on  an  enemy's  flank,  threatening  his  communications 
with  a  base  of  supplies. 

Floating  batteries  —  Guns  mounted  on  platforms  or  in 
ships  not  designed  for  speed,  but  to  be  anchored  in  front 
of  some  exposed  position.  The  French  floating  batteries 
at  Kimborn  in  the  Crimean  war  were  the  first  armored 
ships  used  in  modern  warfare. 

Forced  draft  —  Air  driven  into  the  furnaces  by  a  pow- 
erful fan.  It  is  a  severe  strain  on  the  boilers,  as  it  throws 
a  current  of  cold  air  directly  on  the  tubes  and  is  likely 
to  cause  them  to  leak.  When  forced  draft  is  used  the 
air-tight  doors  of  the  fire  rooms  must  be  closed,  and  the 
atmospheric  pressure  in  the  room  is  increased. 

Freeboard  —  That  part  of  the  ship  extending  above 
the  waterline.  It  must  be  high  in  a  ship  designed  for 
service  in  all  kinds  of  weather.  Guns  mounted  on  a 
high  freeboard  have  an  advantage  in  rough  weather  over 
others. 

High  explosives  —  Explosives  more  powerful  than 
gunpowder,  as  dynamite,  melinite,  cordite.  These  are 
used  as  bursting  charges  for  armor-piercing  shells. 

Homogeneous  fleet — Ships  closely  resembling  each 
other  in  armor,  guns  and  speed.  Such  a  fleet  is  strong, 
and  possesses  a  marked  advantage  in  action  over  one  in 
which  the  individual  ships  differ  greatly  from  each 
other. 

"Jeune  Ecole " — The  believers  in  the  doctrine  of 
Admiral  Eube,  of  France,  that  the  torpedo-boat  and  the 
cruiser  have  taken  the  place  of  the  battleship,  and  that 
speed  is  everything.  They  attach  much  importance  to 
commerce-destroyers  and  bombardments. 

Knot  —  In  the  ordinary  acceptance  of  the  term,  means 
a  nautical  mile,  equal  to  6,086.7  feet.  Knots  may  be 
reduced  to  their  approximate  equivalent  in  statute  miles 


342  THE    PASSING   OF    SPAIN    AND 

by  multiplying  by  1.15.  Statute  miles  may  be  reduced 
to  their  approximate  equivalent  in  knots  by  multiplying 
by  .87. 

Light  draft  —  Floating  in  but  little  water. 

The  log-line — Ordinarily  a  small  line  attached  to  a 
kite-shaped  piece  of  board,  weighted  at  one  end  so  as  to 
stand  upright  in  the  water  and  remain  stationary  when 
thrown  overboard  from  a  vessel  in  motion.  Knots  are 
tied  in  the  line  at  intervals  of  the  1 2oth  part  of  a  nautical 
mile,  and  the  number  of  these  that  runs  through  a  man's 
fingers  in  half  a  minute  shows  the  rate  of  speed  of  the 
vessel  for  an  hour. 

There  are  now  many  kinds  of  patent  logs  which  give 
the  rate  of  speed  with  more  or  less  accuracy. 

Melinite  —  An  explosive  made  from  picric  acid,  used 
as  a  bursting  charge  in  shells.  On  exploding  it  gener- 
ates suffocating  gases. 

Nickel   steel — An  alloy   of   steel  and   nickel   which 

fives  great  hardness  and  power  to  break  up  projectiles 
red  against  it. 

Palliser  shell  —  A  steel  shell  with  a  chilled  point. 

Personnel  —  The  body  of  persons  making  up  the  naval 
force;  used  frequently  with  reference  to  their  character. 
In  distinction  from  material,  meaning  munitions  of  war, 
baggage,  provisions,  etc. 

Plunging  fire  —  Fire  from  guns  used  in  forts  placed  at 
a  considerable  elevation.  Plunging  fire  is  dangerous  to 
the  "  protective  deck." 

Recessed  ports  —  A  port  in  which  the  sides  are  cut  at 
angle,  or  a  portion  of  the  side  cut  away  to  give  greater 
freedom  of  movement  of  the  gun. 

Scouts  —  Light,  fast  ships,  whose  duties  are  to  discover 
the  enemy  and  report. 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  343 

CHAPTER  IX. 
Spanish  Navy. 

In  comparing  the  naval  power  of  Spain  with  that  of 
the  United  States  at  the  beginning  of  the  war,  it  was 
easy  to  see  that  each  was  strong  where  the  other  was 
weak.  Spain  had  eight  magnificent  armored  cruisers 
that  no  country,  not  even  England,  could  equal ;  the 
United  States  had  but  two.  Spain  had  one  first-class 
battleship,  the  "  Pelayo."  The  United  States  had  four 
ships  and  perhaps  five  that  could  certainly  give  her  bat- 
tle with  the  prospect  of  winning.  The  eight  cruisers  of 
the  Spanish  navy  possessed  a  marked  advantage  in 
belonging  to  one  class,  which  gave  them  speed,  coal 
endurance,  offensive  and  defensive  power  about  equal. 
A  fleet  is  no  faster  than  its  slowest  vessel,  a  line  of  bat- 
tle no  more  powerful  than  its  weakest  ship,  as  a  chain  is 
no  stronger  than  its  weakest  link.  The  ships  of  the 
United  States  were  built  at  different  dates,  of  widely 
varying  types,  and  Admiral  Sampson's  fleet  was  wonder- 
ful for  its  lack  of  uniformity.  The  cruiser  "  New  York," 
with  a  speed  of  twenty-one  knots,  towing  a  monitor  along 
at  about  eight  knots,  presented  a  unique  spectacle  trying 
to  overhaul  a  fleet  of  cruisers.  The  United  States  was 
also  deficient  in  torpedo-boats  and  torpedo-boat  destroy- 
ers, and  Spain  was  strong  in  this  respect.  It  is  little 
wonder  that  some  European  critics,  forgetting  the  fact 
that  "the  man  behind  the  gun"  is  the  chief  factor  in  a 
naval  contest,  prophesied  that  the  American  navy  would 
find  in  the  Spaniards  a  hard  nut  to  crack. 

The  individual  bravery  of  the  Spaniards  left  nothing 
to  be  desired,  and  in  the  recent  actions  they  have  proven 
that  as  far  as  courage  is  concerned  they  are  worthy  the 
traditions  of  any  navy.  The  modern  warship  is  a  huge 
floating  machine,  and  bravery  alone  will  not  suffice. 


344 


THE    PASSING   OF    SPAIN    AND 


There  is  nothing  worse  than  a  Spanish  engineer  unless 
it  be  a  Spanish  gunner. 


SPAIN 


"PeUyo" 


SPANISH    BATTLESHIP    "  PELAYO. 


Battleship  "  Pelayo." 

This  is  the  popular  favorite  of  Spain,  and  the  masses 
think  her  able  to  whip  any  ship  in  the  world.  She  is  an 
object  of  almost  religious  interest,  and  more  engravings 
of  her  are  found  in  Spain  than  of  all  other  ships  together. 

The  "  Pelayo  M  was  launched  in  1887  and  at  that  time 
represented  the  highest  type  of  naval  architecture.  She 
is  made  of  steel,  displaces  9,900  tons,  is  330  feet  long,  66 
feet  wide  and  draws  less  than  25  feet  of  water.  She  has 
two  screw  propellers,  moved  by  engines  of  9,000  horse- 
power, and  can  make  sixteen  knots  an  hour. 

From  stem  to  stern  she  is  protected  by  a  belt  of  armor 
7  1-2  feet  wide  3  feet  above  and  4  1-2  feet  below  the 
water-line.  This  is  17.75  inches  thick  opposite  the 
boilers  and  engines,  decreasing  to  less  than  12  inches  at 
the  ends.  The  protective  deck,  4  inches  thick,  runs 
even  with  the  top  of  the  armor-belt. 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  345 

Prominent  features  shown  in  her  pictures  are  two 
military  masts,  two  barbette  turrets,  one  fore  and  one 
aft;  two  sponsons,  one  on  each  side,  and  the  bridge 
between  the  two  smokestacks.  She  has  a  ram  bow. 

She  mounts  two  1 2.6-inch  (32  centimeter)  Hontoria 
guns,  one  forward  and  one  aft,  and  two  n. 2-inch  (28 
centimeter)  guns  in  sponsons  (armored  bay  windows),  one 
on  each  side.  She  thus  can  fire  directly  ahead  or  astern 
one  1 2.6-inch  gun  and  two  n. 2-inch  guns,  or  on  broad- 
side two  12.6-inch  guns  and  one  n. 2-inch  gun.  She  is 
said  to  have,  in  addition,  a  new  battery  of  nine  5.5-inch 
rapid-fire  guns,  six  smaller  rapid-fire  guns  and  twelve 
machine  guns.  The  energy  of  her  gun-fire  for  one 
minute  is  327,720  foot-tons. 

Her  quick-firing  guns  have  no  adequate  armor  protec- 
tion and  might  easily  be  put  out  of  service  by  a  well 
placed  shell  and  her  barbettes  do  not  extend  down  to 
the  protective  deck,  so  the  space  beneath  them  could  be 
swept  by  shell  fire,  the  supports  cut  away,  and  tumble 
guns  and  all  into  the  hold  of  the  ship.  We  think  some 
of  our  gunners  are  clever  enough  to  do  this.  A  1 3-inch 
shell  well  placed  would  do  the  business.  About  the  time 
the  "  Pelayo  "  was  completed  it  was  said  that  she  would 
wear  English  compound  armor.  If  this  is  true,  she 
is  far  less  formidable  than  she  appears  on  paper. 

The  "Vizeaya"  Class. 

Fine  armored  cruisers,  made  of  steel,  with  7,000  tons 
displacement,  and  drawing  21  feet  6  inches  of  water. 
They  were  built  at  Bilbao,  Spain,  and  cost  about 
$3,000,000  each.  They  carried  1,200  tons  of  coal,  and 
should  be  able  in  theory  to  steam  12,000  miles  at  10 
knots  speed  without  re-coaling,  but  this  is  probably  too 
big  an  estimate.  Each  has  an  armor-belt  12  inches  in 
thickness,  gradually  tapering  toward  the  bow  and  stern, 
on  top  of  which  is  a  protective  deck  3  inches  thick,  from 


346 


THE    PASSING    OF    SPAIN    AND 


which  an  armored  tube  rises  to  barbettes  fore  and  aft 
lOj  inches  thick,  which  contain  her  big  guns. 

The  armament  consists  of  2  11. 2-inch  (28  centimeter) 
Hontoria  guns  and  10  5.5-inch  (14  centimeter),  2  2.7-inch 
(7  centimeter),  8  2.2-inch  (57  mm.),  4  i. 4-inch  (37  mm.) 
rapid-fire  guns  and  2  machine  guns.  The  largest  12 
guns  would  give  an  energy  of  71,920  foot-tons  for  one 


Abnrruite  Oqnrndo 


SPANISH    CRUISER    "VISCAYA." 


discharge.  One  discharge  from  the  "  New  York  "  gives 
an  energy  of  but  52,572  foot-tons.  The  energy  of  gun 
fire  of  the  Spanish  vessel  is  292,460  foot-tons  for  one 
minute.  The  "  Almirante  Oquendo"  and  the  "  Infanta 
Maria  Teresa"  were  sister  ships  of  the  "  Vizcaya,"  and 
with  her  sunk  off  Santiago  July  3,  1898. 

The  "  Cristobal  Colon." 

This  was  built  by  the  Italian  government  and  named 
"  Guiseppe  Garibaldi  II."  and  was  by  them  sold  to  Spain, 
who  renamed  her  "Cristobal  Colon."  Though  called  an 
armored  cruiser  she  was  almost  a  battleship,  for  from 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  347 

stem  to  stern  along  the  water  line  she  had  a  belt  of 
nickel-steel  armor  6  inches  thick  and  above  this  for  197 
feet  over  the  central  portion  of  the  ship,  reaching  to  the 
base  of  the  armor  turret,  the  side  armor  was  the  same 
thickness.  The  armor  on  the  side  should  have  furnished 
excellent  protection  for  the  10  6-inch  rapid-fire  guns 
which  were  mounted  5  on  each  side,  and  on  the  deck 
above  these  was  another  lighter'  battery  of  6  4.7-inch 
rapid-fire  guns  protected  by  gun  shields.  She  shculd 
have  mounted  2  lo-inch  guns,  but  through  poverty,  neg- 
lect or  corruption  the  heavy  guns  were  never  furnished. 
In  addition  to  this  she  had  10  6-pounders  and  10 
i -pounders,  2  Maxims,  and  5  torpedo  tubes.  Her  displace- 
ment was  6,840  tons,  length  328  feet,  beam  59  feet  8 
inches,  draft  24  feet.  She  was  driven  by  2  vertical  triple- 
expansion  engines  each  attached  to  a  propeller,  giving  her 
a  speed  of  20  knots.  Her  coal  bunkers  would  carry 
1,000  tons,  and  in  addition  she  was  built  to  use  some 
liquid  fuel. 

The  "  Cristobal  Colon  "  was  beached  in  the  action  off 
Santiago  July  3d  and  at  present  writing  it  is  reported 
that  she  can  be  saved.  She  would  be  a  most  desirable 
addition  to  the  American  navy. 

"  Cardinal  Cisneros  "  Class. 

Spain  has  three  cruisers  belonging  to  this  class.  The 
"  Cisneros  "  and  "  Princess  de  Asturias  "  were  launched 
in  1896,  and  the  "  Cataluna  "  is  not  yet  completed. 

The  "  Cardinal  Cisneros "  has  a  hull  of  steel,  7,000 
tons  displacement,  draft  21  feet  10  inches,  armor-belt 
1 1.8  inches  thick,  tapering  to  6  and  8  inches  at  the  ends. 
It  runs  from  within  30  feet  of  the  bow  to  within  50  feet 
of  the  stern.  The  ends  are  joined  by  transverse  steel 
bulkheads  9.8  inches  thick.  The  protective  deck,  2 
inches  thick,  extends  even  with  the  top  of  the  belt  and 
curves  down  below  the  level  of  the  water  at  the  bo\» 


348  THE    PASSING    OF    SPAIN    AND 

and  stern.  There  are  cofferdams  of  cellulose  behind 
the  belt,  and  the  vitals  are  further  protected  by  from 
6  to  9  feet  of  coal.  The  armor  in  the  barbettes  is  i  i.S 
inches  thick.  The  vessels  are  fitted  with  two  sets  of 
triple-expansion  engines,  giving  a  maximum  speed  of 
20.3  knots.  The  coal  capacity  is  1,500  tons,  which  at 
a  loknot  rate,  should  allow  them  to  steam  12,000  miles. 
They  are  armed  with  2  n. 2-inch  guns,  10  5. 5-inch 
rapid-fire  guns  and  2  2.7-inch,  4  2.2-inch  and  4  i. 4-inch 
smaller  rapid-fire  guns,  and  two  machine  guns.  The 
energy  of  the  gun-fire  of  the  primary  battery  for  one 
minute  is  292,460  foot-tons.  They  are  fitted  with  ram 
bows,  and  have  two  military  masts  with  signal  yards, 
fighting  tops,  2  smoke-stacks,  and  2  turrets,  one  fore  and 
one  aft,  each  mounting  a  heavy  gun. 

••Numaneia." 

The  " Numaneia"  is  an  old  broadside  ship  with  iron 
hull,  launched  in  1863,  and  of  7,305  tons  displacement. 

Our  information  concerning  her  is  meagre.  Originally 
she  had  a  side-plating  4.7  inches  of  wrought  iron,  and 
mounted  muzzle-loading  guns.  With  her  old  engines 
she  was  able  to  make  8  knots  an  hour,  and  with  her 
muzzle-loading  guns  and  wrought-iron  armor  she  should 
not  be  very  formidable.  It  was  planned  to  reconstruct 
her,  take  off  the  wrought-iron  armor  and  replace  it  by  a 
steel  belt  5.5  inches  thick,  protect  her  broadside  guns  by 
5  inches  of  steel,  and  fit  her  with  triple-expansion  engines 
that  would  give  her  a  speed  of  18  knots.  The  striking 
feature  would  be  one  short  smoke-stack,  and  two  mili- 
tary masts,  with  fighting  tops,  in  place  of  her  full-rigged 
three  masts.  She  is  said  to  have  4  6. 3-inch,  8  5.5-inch, 
3  4.7-inch  guns,  all  quick-fire.  The  energy  of  her  gun- 
fire for  one  minute  is  281,498  foot-tons. 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  349 

"Vitoria." 

The  "  Vitoria  "  is  an  old  iron  broadside  training  ship* 
launched  at  Blackwall,  England,  1865.  She  is  of  7,250 
tons  displacement,  draft  25  feet  3  inches,  speed  n  knots. 

She  has  an  armor  belt  5.5  inches  in  thickness,  and  the 
guns  and  broadside  are  protected  by  5-inch  armor.  She 
now  mounts  6  6.3-inch,  6  5.5-inch,  6  4.7-inch  guns,  all 
quick-fire,  and  12  machine  guns.  She  is  used  as  a  train- 
ing school  for  seamen.  The  energy  of  the  gun-fire  of 
her  primary  battery  is  303,372  foot-tons  per  minute. 

The  striking  features  of  the  new  model  would  be  two 
military  masts,  each  with  fighting  tops,  two  short  smoke- 
stacks, and  a  bridge  between  the  smoke-stacks  and  the 
mainmast.  She  ought  not  to  be  a  match  for  any  of  our 
armored  ships. 

The  "Emperador  Carlos  V." 

This  is  the  largest  and  the  best  of  the  Spanish  cruisers 
and  named  after  Spain's  greatest  Emperor.  She  is  built 
of  steel,  has  a  displacement  of  9,235  tons,  1,000  more 
than  the  "  New  York."  She  has  2  screw  propellers 
moved  by  engines  of  18,500  horse-power  that  in  her  trial 
for  the  fastest  mile  gave  her  a  speed  of  21.9  knots,  an 
average  of  20  knots  for  a  longer  time. 

She  was  built  at  Cadiz,  Spain,  and  launched  in  1895, 
costing  about  $360,000.  She  is  the  only  one  of  the 
Spanish  vessels  with  Harveyized  steel  armor.  Her  belt 
is  light,  only  2  inches  thick,  but  we  understand  that  the 
broadside  guns  are  also  protected  by  2  inches  of  steel 
armor.  She  has  a  very  thick  steel  protective  deck,  6^ 
inches,  a  trifle  heavier  than  that  of  the  "  New  York." 

Her  armament  consists  of  2  n. 2-inch  Hontoria  guns 
mounted  in  barbettes  10  inches  thick,  one  forward  and 
one  aft  and  8  5.5-inch,  4  3.9-inch,  2  2.7-inch,  4  2.2-inch 
rapid-fire  guns,  6  machine  guns  and  6  torpedo  tubes. 


350 


THE  PASSING  OF  SPAIN  AND 


The  energy  of  her  gun-fire  is  123,580  foot-tons  per 
minute. 

Her  energy  of  gun-fire  for  one  discharge  would  be 
80,504  foot-tons,  almost  60  per  cent  more  than  that  of  the 
"  New  York."  She  has  a  coal  capacity  of  1,200  tons;  a 
crew  of  535  officers  and  men;  2  military  masts,  each 
with  one  fighting  top  and  signal  yards;  3  tall  smoke 
stacks  and  2  bridges,  one  above  the  other  just  back  of 
the  forward  turret.  She  is  fitted  with  a  ram  bow. 

Protected  Cruisers. 

Spain  has  a  few  protected  cruisers,  but  they  are  no 
match  for  the  magnificent  American  ships  like  the 
"  Olympia,"  "  Cincinnati,"  "  Boston,"  and  "  Baltimore,"  as 
was  proven  at  Manila.  The  "  Isla  de  Cuba  "  and  "  Isla 
de  Luzon"  were  built  in  England,  and  cost  $223,5-30 
each.  The  "Marques  de  la  Ensenada"  was  built  on 
identically  the  same  lines  in  the  government  yards  of 
Spain,  and  cost  $1,439,973,  a  striking  example  of  Spanish 
administration. 


NAME. 

Displace'!, 
tuns. 

ARMORED 
DECK. 

Armament. 

SPEED. 

Inches. 

Knots. 

Alfonso  XIII  

Isla  de  Cuba*  

4>4 

6  4.7-in.,  6  2.2-in. 
Q.  F.,  6  i.4-in., 
3'M. 

Isla  de  Luzon*  

2>S 

4  6-pr.,  Q.  F.,  2 
3-pr.,  2  MT 

Lepanto  .  .  

4,826 

*n 

4% 

4  6-pr.  Q.  F.,  2 
3-pr.,  2  M. 

4  7.8-in.  (Hontoria). 

20 

6  4  7-i:>.  y.  F.,  >> 
6  pr.,  4,  3.pr.,  5  M. 

Destroyed  at  Manila, 


THE    ASCENDANCY    OF    AMERICA. 


351 


NAME. 

Displace'!, 
tons. 

ARMORED 
DECK. 

Armament. 

SPEED. 

Inches. 

Knots. 

Marques  de  la  Ensenada. 
Rio  de  la  Plata  

1,030  . 

« 

4  4-7-in.  (Hontoria), 
5  Q.  F.,  4  M. 

15 

2  5-5-in.  Q.  F.,  4 
3-q-in.,  4  2.2-in., 
6M. 

UNPROTECTED  CRUISERS. 


XT  A  TVTTT 

Tons. 

SPEED. 

cVAMJEtt 

displace't. 

Knots. 

Alfonso  XII  

3,090 

6  6.  2-in  (Hontoria), 

I7-5 

2  2.7-in.,  6  6-prs., 

Q.  F.,  4  3-prs.,  5  M. 

Aragon  

0  -  -342 

6  6.  2-in.  (Hontoria), 

T4 

J  *  JT" 

2  3-3-in.,  (Krupp), 

4  2.g-in.,  2  M. 

Castilla.*  

3042 

4  5.o-in.  (Krupp), 

T  J 

»  O*T~ 

4  4-7-in.,  2  3-3-m., 
4  2.9-in.,  8  Q.  F. 

A^T 

2   M. 

Conde  de  Venadito  .... 

1,130 

4  4-7-in  (Hontoria), 

M 

2  2.7-in..  2  O.  F., 

5M. 

Don  Antonio  de  Ulloa*. 

1,13° 

4  4-7-in.  (Hontoria), 

14 

2  2.7-in.,  2  O.  F., 

5M. 

Don  Juan  de  Austria*... 

I,I3O 

4  4.7-in.  (Hontoria), 

14 

3  2.2-in.,  Q.  F., 

2  i-s-in.,  5  M. 

Infanta  Isabel  

I,  I3O 

4  4.7-in.  (Hontoria), 

14 

2  2.7-in..  3  Q.  F., 

4M. 

Isabel  II  

4  4  7-in    {Hontoris.) 

*,  I3° 

2  7.7-in.',  4  Q.  F., 

*4 

Navarra  

3i342 

4  5-9"}n'i  2  4'7")n-, 
2  3.4-in.,  4  2.  9-  in., 

J4 

*  Destroyed  at  Manila. 


352  THE   PASSING    OF    SPAIN    AND 

UNPROTECTED  CRUISERS.—  Continued. 


NAME. 

Tons, 
displace't. 

Armament. 

SPEED. 

Km.  is 

Nueva  Espana  

Quiros  

630 

2  4-7-in.  (Hontoria). 
4  2.2-in.,  Q.  F. 

18 

Rcina  Christina  *  

3'5 

2  2.2-in.  Q.  F.,  2  M. 

ii  5 

Reina  Regente  

3,520 

6  6.2-in.  (Hontoria), 
2  2.7-in.,  3  z.z-in. 
?.  F.,  2  i.j-in., 
3-prs.,  2  M. 

'7  5 

Rcina  Mercedes  

5,ooo 

20 

Velasco  *  

3.09° 

6  6.2-in.  (Hontoria), 
2  2.7-in.,  3  2.2-in. 
Q.  F.,  2  i.s-in., 
6  i.4-m.,  2  M. 

"7-5 

2  2.7-in.  (Hontoria),  _•  M. 

M-3 

*  Destroyed  at  Manilla. 

Torpedo-boat  Destroyers. 

At  the  breaking  out  of  the  war  Spain  had  a  very 
formidable  fleet  of  torpedo-boat  destroyers.  They  were 
large  enough  to  keep  at  sea  with  a  fighting1  fleet —  a 
small  torpedo  boat  cannot  do  this  —  and  given  enough 
speed  and  gun-power  to  overtake  and  destroy  the  smaller 
torpedo  boats ;  hence  the  name  torpedo-boat  destroyer. 

The  present  war  by  no  means  settles  the  merits  of  the 
torpedo-boat  destroyer,  for  the  Spaniards  have  not  used 
theirs  as  the  designers  had  intended.  Their  large  size 
unfits  them  for  attack  in  the  daytime,  and  whenever  they 
have  rashly  undertaken  this  they  have  met  with  disaster. 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA. 


353 


ft* 

C 

a 

•d 

y 

• 

0 

1 

NAME 

ja 

& 

o 

_rt 

V 
Q. 
C/3 

Armament. 

a 

(9 
U 

So 

c 

at 

!s 

V 

J 

5 

H 

u 

Feet. 

Tons. 

Knots. 

Tons. 

Furor  

220 

380 

28 

2  12-pr.,  2  6-pr.,  2  i-pr. 

IOO 

Terror    

220 

380 

28 

2  12-  pr.,  2  6-pr.,  2  i-pr 

100 

Audaz    

225 

400 

3° 

2  i4-pr.,  2  6-pr.,  2  i  pr. 

90 

Osado  

225 

400 

3° 

2  i4-pr.,  2  6-pr.,  2  i-pr. 

90 

Pluton   

225 

400 

3° 

2  i4-pr.,  2  6-pr.,  2  i-pr. 

90 

Proserpina  

225 

400 

30 

2  i4-pr.,  2  6-pr.,  2  i-pr. 

go 

Torpedo  Boats. 

Spain  has  a  strong  fleet  of  torpedo  boats.  The 
"Ariete,"  launched  in  1887,  made  a  speed  record  of 
26.1  knots  on  her  trial.  That  for  several  years  stood  as 
an  international  record  and  gave  the  Spanish  boats  a 
high  reputation. 

The  following  are  first-class  torpedo  boats:  Acevedo, 
Ariete,  Azor,  Barcelo,  Bustamente,  Ejercito,  Habana, 
Halcon,  Julian  Ordofiez,  Orion,  Rayo,  Retamosa,  Rigel, 
Seza.  Six  additional  boats  of  this  class  are  building. 

Second-class:  Aire,  Castor,  Pollux,  Peral.  Three 
additional  boats  of  this  class  are  building. 


354  THE    PASSING   OF    SPAIN    AND 

CHAPTER  X. 
American  Navy. 
Admiral  George  Dewey. 

He  was  born  in  Montpelier,  Vt,  December  26,  18371 
and  is  the  third  son  of  Julius  Yemens  Dewey,  M.  D.,  a 
prominent  physician  of  Montpelier,  who  founded  and 
was  for  many  years  president  of  the  National  Life  Insur- 
ance Company  of  that  city.  Young  Dewey,  in  his  boy- 
hood, seems  to  have  engaged  in  about  as  many  fights  as 
General  Sherman,  and  to  have  thus  early  in  life  acquired 
the  habit  of  coming  out  as  victor.  His  early  school-life 
was  spent  in  the  Washington  County  Grammar  School, 
of  Montpelier.  The  scholars  there  had  the  reputation 
of  being  hard  to  manage  and  were  engaged  in  ,frequent 
conflicts  with  their  teachers,  in  which  young  Dewey 
seems  to  have  figured  prominently. 

He  entered  the  naval  academy  at  Annapolis,  was  made 
acting  midshipman  September  23,  1854,  and  lieutenant, 
1 86 1.  He  was  ordered  to  the  steamer  "  Mississippi  "  in 
the  West  Gulf  squadron  and  served  under  Farragut. 
During  the  Civil  War  he  displayed  marked  coolness  and 
heroism,  and  was  a  great  favorite  with  his  commanders 
and  fellow-officers.  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  in  the 
battle  of  Manila,  Captain  Coghlan  of  the  "  Raleigh," 
Captain  Dyer  of  the  "  Baltimore,"  and  Captain  Gridley 
of  the  "Olympia,"  Dewey's  flagship,  serving  under  him, 
had  also  served  with  him  an  apprenticeship  under 
Farragut. 

Made  a  commodore  and  placed  in  charge  of  the 
Asiatic  squadron,  he  worked  long  and  hard  to  put  it  in 
shape  for  the  coming  struggle  with  Spain  which  he  saw 
was  impending.  The  result  shows  how  thorough  was 
his  preparation.  The  day  before  the  formal  declaration 
of  war  was  made,  Secretary  Long  cabled  Dewey  to  Hong 
Kong  as  follows: 


THE  ASCENDENCY  OF  AMERICA.          355 

"  War  has  commenced  between  the  United  States  and  Spain.  Proceed  at 
once  to  the  Philippine  Islands.  Commence  operations  at  once,  particularly 
against  the  Spanish  fleet.  You  must  capture  vessels  or  destroy  them.  Use 
utmost  endeavors." 

May  ist  he  could  report  the  Spanish  fleet  as  anni- 
hilated. In  a  few  days  after  receiving  news  of  his  great 
victory,  he  was  sent  the  following  despatch : 

"  WASHINGTON,  May  7. 

"  Dewey,  Manila  :  President,  in  the  name  of  the  American  people,  thanks 
you  and  your  officers  and  men  for  your  splendid  achievement  and  over- 
whelming victory.  In  recognition  be  has  appointed  you  Acting  Admiral 
and  will  recommend  a  vote  of  thanks  to  you  by  Congress.  LONG." 

Commodore  Sehley  (sly). 

The  face  of  Winfield  Scott  Sehley  is  almost  as  familiar 
to  our  readers  as  that  of  Admiral  Dewey.  He  is  a  de- 
scendant of  a  well  known  Maryland  family  and  was  born 
at  Frederick,  Maryland,  October  9,  1839.  He  entered 
the  naval  academy  at  Annapolis  and  was  made  acting 
midshipman  in  1856.  He  served  with  Farragut  in  the 
Mississippi  river  and  about  Port  Hudson,  took  part  in 
several  skirmishes  and  assisted  in  cutting  out  from  under 
heavy  fire  two  supply  schooners  of  the  Confederates. 
He  was  made  Lieutenant  July  16,  1862,  only  two  years 
after  leaving  the  naval  academy.  Later  he  served  in  the 
Pacific  squadron  as  the  executive  officer  of  the  "  Wateree," 
suppressed  an  insurrection  among  the  Chinese  coolies  in 
the  Chincha  Islands.  During  a  revolution  in  San  Sal- 
vador he  landed  to  protect  the  custom  house  and  the 
United  States  Consulate.  In  1869  he  was  appointed  to 
the  "  Benicia"  and  served  with  her  in  the  Asiatic  station 
until  1872,  taking  part  in  the  attack  upon  the  forts  upon 
the  Salee  river  in  Corea,  where  Lieutenant  Hugh  McKee 
was  killed.  In  1874  he  was  made  a  Commander. 

When  the  necessity  of  relief  for  the  Greely  expedition 
became  apparent  in  1884  he  was  placed  in  command  of 
it,  and  June  22d,  rescued  Lieutenant  Greely  and  six 


356  THE    PASSING    OF    SPAIN    AND 

men  at  Cape  Sabine.  He  found  them  almost  at  the 
point  of  death ;  a  few  hours  more  and  he  would  have 
been  too  late.  In  recognition  of  his  services  in  this  re- 
spsct  President  Arthur  appointed  him  Chief  of  the  Bureau 
of  Equipment  where  he  served  until  1888  when  he  was 
reappoint^d  to  the  same  office  by  President  Cleveland. 
He  was  made  Captain  March  3,  1888.  Upon  leaving 
the  bureau  he  was  given  the  "  Baltimore,"  and  in  that 
vessel  carried  back  to  Stockholm,  Sweden,  the  remains 
of  the  distinguished  John  Ericsson,  famous  for  his  build- 
ing of  the  "  Monitor."  The  "  Baltimore  "  was  assigned 
to  duty  on  the  Pacific  squadron  and  was  under  his  com- 
mand when  some  of  his  crew  were  assaulted  and  killed 
by  a  mob  at  Valparaiso,  Chile,  1891. 

He  is  a  very  popular  officer  in  the  service  and  has  re- 
ceived two  gold  medals  from  his  native  State,  Maryland, 
and  a  gold  watch  for  his  services  in  the  expedition  which 
saved  Lieutenant  Greely. 

His  distinguished  services  during  the  present  war  have 
made  his  name  and  face  familiar  to  our  readers. 

Admiral  Sampson. 

William  T.  Sampson  was  born  in  Palmyra,  N.  Y. 
February  8,  1840.  His  career  is  a  striking  example  of 
what  industry,  intelligence  and  courage  can  secure. 
Others  of  our  prominent  naval  officers  have  belonged  to 
rich  and  influential  families,  whose  influence  sometimes 
opportunely  secured  for  them  a  chance  to  make  known 
their  abilities.  Admiral  Sampson  had  none  of  these 
advantages.  His  father  was  a  farmer  in  moderate  cir- 
cumstances and  could  not  allow  his  son  to  devote  all  of 
his  time  even  to  the  local  schools,  and  he  was  frequently 
compelled  to  leave  school  to  assist  at  home  on  the  farm 
in  the  work  there  during  the  busy  season.  Handi- 
capped as  he  was,  nevertheless  young  Sampson  soon  dis- 
tanced the  rest  of  the  boys  at  the  Union  School  at 


THE  ASCENDENCY  OF  AMERICA.  357 

Palmyra.  A  local  Congressman,  attracted  by  his  intel- 
ligence and  bright  manner,  secured  for  him  an  appoint- 
ment at  the  naval  academy,  which  he  entered  in  1857, 
and  from  which  he  was  graduated  at  the  head  of  his  class 
three  years  later. 

Serving  off  Charleston  in  1865,  he  was  ordered  by  the 
admiral  to  enter  the  harbor  and  remove  or  destroy  all 
submarine  mines  and  torpedoes  by  which  the  city  was 
protected  from  invasion.  The  service  required  was  a 
difficult  and  dangerous  one,  and  the  work  was  conducted 
under  a  heavy  fire  from  the  enemy's  sharpshooters.  A 
number  of  his  men  being  killed  about  him,  Lieutenant 
Sampson  ordered  them  under  cover  as  much  as  possible, 
while  he  himself  remained  a  target  for  their  rifles,  and 
calmly  superintended  the  work.  While  swinging  in  the 
current  the  "Patapsco"  struck  a  submarine  mine,  which 
exploded  and  sent  her  to  the  hottom  with  seventy  of  her 
crew.  Lieutenant  Sampson  was  thrown  about  100  feet 
by  the  force  of  the  explosion,  but  was  rescued  with 
twenty-five  of  his  men.  His  commanding  officer,  in  the 
official  report  of  the  disaster,  speaks  in  high  terms  of  his 
lieutenant's  coolness  and  bravery. 

He  was  appointed  Superintendent  of  the  Naval  Acad- 
emy in  1886  and  held  this  position  until  1890.  in  1892 
he  became  Inspector  of  Ordnance  and  in  1893  was  made 
Chief  of  the  Bureau  of  Ordnance.  While  in  that  position 
he  had  charge  of  the  manufacture  of  the  heavy  guns  and 
tested  the  turrets  and  ordnance  machinery  connected 
with  many  of  our  battleships  now  under  his  command. 

It  is  a  striking  compliment  to  Captain  Sampson  that 
he  was  placed  at  the  head  of  the  "  Maine"  Court  of  In- 
quiry, the  President  recognizing  that  a  thorough  knowl- 
edge of  a  ship  from  the  bottom  of  her  keel  to  the  tip  of  her 
masts  and  a  level  head  was  of  more  value  in  that  position 
than  an  ability  to  coin  unique  phrases. 


35  THE    PASSING    OF    SPAIN    AND 

When  it  became  apparent  that  hostilities  with  Spain 
were  about  to  break  out  the  President  appointed  Acting 
Rear-Admiral  Sampson  to  the  command  of  the  fleet. 
He  transferred  his  flag  to  the  cruiser  "  New  York,"  kept 
the  fleet  in  perfect  readiness,  had  Havana  blockaded  the 
afternoon  of  the  same  day  the  President  issued  the  proc- 
lamation giving  notice  of  intention  to  blockade  that 
port. 

The  new  navy  owes  a  heavy  debt  to  Admiral  Samp- 
son. He  devised  the  superimposed  turrets  which  are 
the  distinctive  feature  of  the  battleships  "  Kearsarge " 
and  "  Kentucky."  The  great  naval  gun  factory  at  Wash- 
ington was  constructed  while  he  was  Chief  of  the  Bureau 
of  Ordnance.  In  the  navy  he  is  regarded  as  a  high  au- 
thority on  torpedo  work,  and  .his  lectures  at  the  War  Col- 
lege produced  a  profound  impression  all  over  the  world. 

In  personal  appearance  Admiral  Sampson  is  of  slight 
build,  blue  eyes,  shoulders  a  trifle  rounded,  with  consider- 
able gray  in  his  hair  and  beard.  He  is  a  man  of  few 
words,  but  personally  very  well  liked.  He  has  the 
reputation  of  being  cool,  level-headed,  full  of  resources, 
and  a  capital  man  to  have  about  in  an  emergency,  This 
son  of  what  Lincoln  loved  to  term  the  "  plain  people  " 
has  proved  his  right  to  a  recognized  position  among  our 
leaders. 

Captain  Alfred  Thayer  Mahan. 

He  was  born  September  27,  1840,  and  was  appointed 
to  Annapolis  Naval  Academy  from  New  York  in  1856. 
He  was  made  lieutenant  in  1861  and  served  as  such  dur- 
ing the  Civil  War,  rising  by  successive  steps  to  that  of 
captain  in  1885.  He  was  president  of  the  Naval  War 
College  from  1886  to  1889  and  again  from  1890  to 

1893- 

Captain  Mahan  is  the  first  and  as  yet  the  only  writer 
to  show  conclusively  the  important  part  that  naval  power 


THE     ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  359 

has  played  in  the  fortunes  of  nations  and  its  general  influ- 
ence upon  the  history  of  the  world.  His  book,  "The 
Influence  of  Sea  Power  Upon  History,"  which  appeared 
in  1890,  won  him  international  recognition. 

"  The  strategic  conditions  of  the  Mediterranean  will 
be"  reproduced  in  the  Caribbean  Sea,  and  in  the  interna- 
tional struggle  for  the  control  of  the  new  highway  of 
commerce  (Panama  Canal)  the  United  States  will  have 
the  advantage  of  geographical  position."  He  points  out 
that  the  carrying  trade  of  the  United  States  is  at  present 
insignificant,  only  because  the  opening  of  the  West  since 
the  Civil  War  had  made  maritime  undertakings  less 
profitable  than  the  development  of  the  internal  resources 
of  the  country.* 

A  few  years  ago  Captain  Mahan  retired  from  the  navy, 
devoted  himself  to  his  literary  work,  and  has  produced 
"  The  Influence  of  Sea  Power  Upon  History,"  "  Life  of 
Nelson,"  "  Life  of  Admiral  Farragut,"  "  Influence  of  Sea 
Power  Upon  the  French  Revolution  and  Empire,"  and 
"  The  Interest  of  America  in  Sea  Power  Present  and 
Future." 

At  the  outbreak  of  the  Spanish-American  war  he  was 
in  Italy,  but  came  home  at  the  request  of  the  Washing- 
ton administration  and  has  been  acting  as  a  member  of 
the  War  Board  and  adviser  to  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy. 
No  modern  writer  on  naval  affairs  is  more  widely  quoted 
than  Captain  Mahan,  and  by  English  writers  his  works 
are  credited  with  having  had  a  deep  influence  in  the  de- 
velopment of  what  we  are  now  calling  the  "  new  national 
policy"  of  the  United  States. 

*  Warner's  "World's  Best  Literature,"  vol.  xvi.,  page  9580. 


360 


THE    PASSING    OF    SPAIN    AND 


Rate  of  Pay  for  Sea  Service. 

Per  year. 


5,000 
4,500 
3.500 

,800-3,000 
,400-2,600 


950 
1,200 


Rear-Admirals  . .    

Commodores    

Captains 

Commanders    

Lieutenant-Corn  m  a  n  d- 
ers 2, 

Lieutenants... 2, 

Lieutenants  (junior 
grade) 1,800-2,000 

Ensigns i  ,200-1 ,400 

Naval  Cadets  (at  Acad- 
emy $500) 

Mates 

Medical  and  Pay  Direc- 
tors and  Medical  and 
Pay  Inspectors  and 
Chief  Engineers  hav- 
ing the  same  rank  at 
sea 

Fleet  Surgeons,  Fleet 
Paymasters  and  Fleet 
Engineers 

Surgeons,      Paymasters 

and  Chief  Engineers.     2,800-4,200 
Passed    Assistant    Sur- 
geons and  Passed  As- 
sistant Paymasters  . . 

Passed  Assistant  Engi- 
neers . . 


4,400 


4,400 


2,000-2,200 


Per  year 


2,000 


Assistant  Surgeons,  As- 
sistant Paymasters 
and  Assistant  Engi- 
neers   1,700-1,900 

Chaplains 2,500 

Boatswains,  Gunners, 
Carpenters  and  Sail- 
makers  1,200 

Per  month. 

Chief  Masters-at-Arms $65.00 

Chief  Boatswains'  Mates 50.00 

Chief  Gunners'  Mates 50.00 

Chief  Quartermasters  ...      ...  50.00 

Masters-at-Arms 40.00 

Boatswains'  Mates 40  oo 

Gunners'  Mates 40.00 

Quartermasters 40.00 

Schoolmasters 40.00 

Machinists 55-°° 

Blacksmiths 50.00 

Seamen  Gunners 26.00 

Seamen 19-24 

Apprentices 15-21 

Firemen 30-35 

Musicians 30-32 

Landsmen  .                     1600 


The  salary  attached  to  many  of  the  officers  is  gradu- 
ally increased  'for  long  periods  of  service.  A  chief 
engineer  at  starting  has  $2,800;  after  twenty  years  in 
the  service,  $4,200. 

Prize  Money  for  Our  Navy. 

The  commanding  officer  of  the  fleet  or  squadron 
receives  one-twentieth  of  all  prize  money  awarded  to  any 
vessel  or  vessels  under  his  immediate  control. 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  361 

Fleet  Captain :  The  fleet  captain  is  entitled  to  one  one- 
hundredth  part  of  the  award  made  to  any  vessel  or  vessels 
of  the  fleet  or  squadron  for  which  he  serves  except  in  the 
case  where  the  capture  is  made  by  the  vessel  in  which 
he  is  serving,  and  in  that  case  he  shares  in  proportion  to 
his  pay  with  the  other  officers  and  men  on  board  the  ves- 
sel. 

Commander  of  a  Vessel:  The  commander  of  a  single 
vessel  is  given  one-tenth  of  the  money  awarded  to  his  ves- 
sel if  it  is  acting  at  the  time  of  the  capture  under  the  com- 
mand of  the  commanding  officer  of  a  fleet,  squadron  or 
division,  and  three-twentieths  of  it  if  it  was  acting  inde- 
pendently. 

Officers  and  Crew:  After  there  has  been  deducted 
from  the  prize  money  the  sums  to  which  the  commanding 
officers  are  entitled,  the  remainder  shall  be  awarded  to  the 
officers  and  crew  of  the  vessel  in  proportion  to  the  pay 
each  draws. 

Who  Share:  All  vessels  of  the  navy  that  are  within 
signaling  distance  of  the  vessel  or  vessels  making  the 
capture,  and  in  such  circumstances  as  to  render  efficient 
aid  if  required,  share  in  the  prize. 

When  the  District  Court  of  the  United  States  shall  de- 
termine that  a  prize  was  of  inferior  force  to  the  captor, 
one-half  the  proceeds  of  the  sale  shall  go  to  the  captor 
and  one-half  to  the  United  States,  but  if  the  prize  was  of 
equal  or  superior  force  to  the  vessel  making  the  capture, 
the  entire  net  proceeds  of  the  sale  shall  go  to  the  captor. 

Section  4635  of  the  Revised  Statutes  authorizes  the 
payment  of  a  bounty  of  $  100  for  each  man  on  an  enemy's 
ship  of  war  that  is  destroyed  in  action. 

Prize  Courts. 

Before  a  prize  can  be  sold  and  prize  money  awarded  to 
the  captors  the  legality  of  the  capture  must  be  confirmed 
by  a  court  having  jurisdiction  in  the  matter. 


362  THE    PASSING    OF    SPAIN    AND 

The  prize  courts  of  this  country  are  United  States  Dis- 
trict and  Circuit  Courts  with  an  appeal  from  the  Circuit 
Court  up  to  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States. 
These  courts  decide  the  questions  of  belligerency,  neu- 
trality, capture,  contraband,  and  from  their  decision  are 
derived  the  title  to  prizes.  All  sales  of  captured  prizes 
are  illegal  when  made  within  neutral  ports. 

Energy  of  Gun-Fire. 

Two  English  writers,  Lord  Brassey  and  Admiral  Col- 
omb,  each  independently  in  1896  introduced  a  new 
standard  for  measuring  gun-power  of  vessels;  that  is, 
"energy  of  gun-fire  per  minute."  The  power  of  the 
gun  is  measured  by  the  force  its  projectile  could  exert. 
This  force  is  termed  energy  and  is  measured  by  the  num- 
ber of  tons  it  could  lift  one  foot,  hence  called  foot-tons. 
The  13-inch  gun  has  a  muzzle  energy  of  33,627  foot-tons, 
that  is,  the  force  with  which  the  projectile  leaves  the  gun 
would  be  sufficient  to  lift  that  many  tons  one  foot.  In 
computing  the  energy  of  gun-fire  for  the  vessels  of  the 
United  States  navy  we  have  assumed  that  each  ves- 
sel would  enter  action  with  her  guns  loaded  and  fire 
them  at  the  following  rate  of  speed:  1 3-inch,  one  round 
in  3  minutes;  1 2-inch,  one  round  in  2.8  minutes;  lo-inch, 
one  round  in  2  minutes;  8-inch,  one  round  in  1.5  min- 
utes; 6-inch,  slow-fire,  one  round  a  minute;  6-inch  rapid- 
fire,  six  rounds  a  minute ;  5-inch  rapid-fire,  ten  rounds  a 
minute;  4. 7-inch,  rapid-fire,  twelve  rounds  a  minute;  4- 
inch  rapid-fire,  fifteen  rounds  a  minute.  This  speed  is  far 
higher  than  could  be  maintained  in  actual  combat,  but  has 
been  attained  at  drill.  Energy  of  gun-fire  would  not 
measure  accurately  the  fighting  efficiency  of  a  vessel,  but 
a  gun  that  can  be  fired  only  once  a  minute  must  be  at  a 
disadvantage  when  opposed  to  one  that  can  be  fired  six 
times  as  fast. 

The  private  gunmakers  of  England  are  turning  out 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  363 

some  remarkable  guns  and  selling  them  to  whoever  will 
buy  them.  As  an  example  of  this  the  Blanco  Encalada, 
a  Chilian  cruiser,  at  target-practice  fired  four  shots  from 
an  8-inch  gun  in  sixty-two  seconds,  and  took  the  ammuni- 
tion from  the  magazine.  Another  Chilian  cruiser,  the 
Almirante  O'Higgins,  belongs  to  the  same  class  as  the 
New  York  and  Brooklyn.  A  little  larger  than  the  New 
York  and  not  so  large  as  the  Brooklyn,  she  mounts  in  her 
primary  battery  four  8-inch,  ten  6-inch,  and  four  4.7-inch 
guns,  all  rapid-fire.  Her  energy  of  gun-fire  for  one  minute 
should  be  606,000,  while  that  of  the  New  York  for  the 
same  time  is  only  208,688.  A  few  examples  like  this 
should  convince  our  authorities  of  the  advisability  of  get- 
ting a  modern  armament  on  board  our  vessels. 

At  the  close  of  the  Civil  War  the  United  States  had 
the  most  powerful  navy  in  the  world,  but  no  effort  was 
made  to  keep  it  up  and  it  was  not  long  before  this  coun- 
try had  not  a  modern  gun  afloat  in  its  navy  nor  a  single 
modern  warship  for  the  performance  of  the  most  ordinary 
duty  abroad.  We  had  no  plant  that  could  turn  out  a 
ton  of  steel  armor.  Gun  forgings  for  our  cannon  were 
bought  abroad.  The  "Texas,"  launched  at  the  United 
States  Navy  Yard  at  Norfolk,  Va.,  was  even  built  from 
plans  purchased  in  England. 

In  1883,  the  protected  cruisers  "Atlanta,"  "Boston" 
and  "  Chicago,"  and  the  dispatch  boat  "  Dolphin,"  were 
authorized.  They  were  built  by  John  Roach  &  Com- 
pany of  Chester,  Penn.,  and  launched  the  following  year. 
This  was  the  beginning  of  the  "  new  navy." 

In  1885  Congress  authorized  the  building  of  the  pro- 
tected cruiser  "  Charleston."  The  plans  were  purchased 
abroad  and  the  contract  went  to  the  Union  Iron  Worksi 
San  Francisco  Cal.  The  vessel  was  launched  in  1888, 
and  commissioned  in  1889.  The  construction  of  the 
cruiser  "  Newark  "  was  authorized  the  same  year  and  con- 
tract given  Wm.  Cramp  &  Sons,  Philadelphia,  Penh. 


364  THE    PASSING    OF    SPAIN    AND 

She  was  launched  in  1890  together  with  the  torpedo- 
boat  "  Petrel." 

An  appropriation  of  $3,178,046  was  made  to  complete 
the  "  Amphitrite,"  "  Miantonomoh,"  "  Puritan,"  and 
"  Terror,"  the  keels  of  which  had  been  laid  a  decade 
before. 

In  1 886  were  authorized  the  "Maine"  and  "Texas," 
two  second-class  battleships,  the  cruiser  "  Baltimore  "  and 
the  dynamite  cruiser  "  Vesuvius."  In  1890  three  first-class 
battleships,  "  Indiana,"  "  Massachusetts"  and  "Oregon." 
The  "  Indiana"  was  the  first  to  be  launched  (Feb.  28, 
1893)  and  the  first  to  be  commissioned  five  years  from 
date  of  the  act  authorizing  her  construction.  Since  that 
time  our  naval  progress  has  been  fairly  rapid,  and  each 
ship  when  completed  has  usually  represented  the  best  of 
its  type  afloat.  Within  the  past  fifteen  years  $400,000,- 
ooo  has  been  appropriated  for  the  navy,  about  50  per 
cent,  of  it  within  the  last  five  years. 

Importance  of  Sea  Power :  Our  navy  has  been  a  rather 
neglected  child  and  never  a  very  popular  one  in  some 
parts  of  the  country,  but  the  excellent  service  it  has  lately 
given  us  should  reconcile  all  opposition.  The  destruction 
of  the  Spanish  fleets  at  Santiago  and  Manila  has  dealt 
crushing  blows  to  Spanish  power.  It  is  the  superior 
condition  of  our  navy  that  has  so  quickly  enabled  us  to 
carry  the  war  into  Spain's  territory,  and  its  well  demon- 
strated effectiveness  will  make  Europe  likely  to  hesitate 
before  interferring  with  us. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  when  Japan  began  her 
recent  war  with  China  she  had  only  160,000  tons  of 
steam  merchant  vessels  afloat.  It  is  four  years  since, 
and  her  merchant  tonnage  now  aggregates  more  than 
400,000.  The  recent  partition  of  China  is  a  striking 
example  of  what  it  costs  a  nation  to  be  unprepared  for 
war,  and  especially  to  be  weak  in  sea  power.  None  of 
the  nations,  with  the  exception  of  Russia,  who  are  wring- 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  365 

ing  concessions  from  that  ancient  country  could  make 
their  force  felt  other  than  through  their  naval  power. 

Commerce  destroyers  and  harbor  defense  monitors 
alone  are  not  sufficient.  Captain  Mahan  has  shown  that 
although  American  privateers  did  immense  damage  to 
English  commerce  during  the  war  of  1812,  yet  the  com- 
merce of  England  increased  with  great  rapidity,  because 
by  means  of  her  battleships  she  kept  control  of  the  sea 
and  blockaded  our  ports. 

For  many  years  the  policy  of  the  United  States  has 
been  to  maintain  a  strictly  defensive  navy,  apparently 
forgetting  that  this  would  give  an  opponent  the  option 
of  attacking  and  secure  him  from  attack  whenever  he 

O 

ceased  to  press  the  offensive.  It  is  an  axiom  of  war  that 
the  best  defense  is  an  aggresive  offensive  movement.  If 
our  first  line  of  defense  is  confined  to  our  coasts,  we 
must  simply  man  the  defenses  and  sit  there  until  in  his 
own  good  time  the  opponent  chooses  to  attack.  If  our 
first  line  of  defense  is  a  fleet  of  modern  sea-going  battle- 
ships, we  have  the  advantage  of  making  the  attack  near 
the  opponent's  coast  if  we  so  choose,  and  derive  all  the 
advantage  of  beginning,  at  our  option,  the  warfare  thou- 
sands of  miles  from  our  own  defenseless  cities. 

Kinds  of  Battleships. 

The  battleships  of  the  United  States  are  divided  into 
two  classes,  the  coast-line  defense  battleship  and  the  sea- 
going battleship.  A  coast-line  defense  battleship  lies 
lower  in  the  water,  the  sides  are  not  so  high  and  the 
heavy  guns  are  not  carried  so  far  above  the  water  line. 
In  moderately  still  water  this  would  be  an  advantage,  as 
it  would  not  present  so  large  a  target  for  the  enemy's 
guns,  but  as  the  water  roughens  the  advantage  decreases 
and  becomes  a  weakness. 

The  "  Indiana,"  the  "Massachusetts"  and  the  "Ore- 
gon," three  sister  ships,  are  our  coast-line  defense  battle. 


366  THE    PASSING    OF    SPAIN    AND 

ships.  The  "  Iowa "  is  at  present  the  only  sea-going 
battleship  in  commission,  but  to  this  list  will  soon  be 
added  the  "  Kentucky,"  "  Kearsarge,"  "  Alabama,"  "Wis- 
consin "  and  "  Illinois." 

The  "Oregon." 

She  was  made  at  the  Union  Iron  Works  at  San  Fran- 
cisco, Cal.,  and  her  exceptionally  fine  performance  in  her 
long  voyage  attracted  such  attention  that  her  builder, 
I.  N.  Scott,  was  at  once  invited  by  the  Czar  of  Russia  to 
come  to  St.  Petersburg  and  make  contracts  for  building 
Russian  war  vessels.  As  an  illustration  of  how  lontj  it 

^y 

takes  us  to  build  a  good  battleship,  the  "Oregon"  was 
authorized  by  the  act  of  June  30,  1890;  the  contract  was 
signed  with  the  builder  November  19  following;  the  keel 
was  laid  November  19,  1891;  she  was  launched  October 
26,  1893;  date  of  completion,  according  to  contract, 
November  19,  1893,  and  was  first  commissioned  July  15, 
1896,  rather  more  than  six  \vars  from  the  time  Congress 
passed  the  act  authorizing  her  construction.  The  "Ore- 
gon" class  are  the  heaviest  gunned  battleships  in  the 
world  —  that  is,  they  mount  more  heavy  guns  than  any 
other,  but  many  others  excel  them  in  energy  of  gun-fire 
per  minute. 

The  "  Oregon  "  is  348  feet  long,  69  feet  3  inches  wide 
and  draws,  when  fully  loaded,  27  feet  i  3-4  inches  of 
water.  She  then  displaces  10,288  tons.  Her  motive 
power  is  furnished  by  twin-screw  vertical  triple-expansion 
engines  —  that  is,  the  vessel  has  two  screw  propellers, 
and  the  steam  from  her  boilers  is  used  three  times :  first 
when  fresh  from  the  boiler  on  the  high  pressure  cylinder, 
then,  as  it  cools  somewhat,  in  the  intermediate  cylinder; 
last,  as  it  becomes  cooler,  in  the  low  pressure  cylinder. 
At  her  trial  she  made  an  average  speed  of  16.79  knots 
for  four  hours. 

She  made  her  remarkable  voyage  from  San  Francisco, 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  367 

Cal.,  to  Jupiter  'Inlet,  Fla.,  13,000  miles,  at  an  average 
speed  of  more  than  13  knots  an  hour  for  the  whole  dis- 
tance. She  made  375  miles  in  one  day,  an  average  of 
nearly  16  knots  an  hour.  The  fortitude  of  her  firemen 
is  shown  when  we  remember  that  during  the  whole  of 
this  voyage  the  temperature  in  the  engine-room  never 
fell  below  125°  and  sometimes  reached  150.° 

In  the  pursuit  of  the  "  Cristobal  Colon"  off  Santiago, 
when  her  men  in  the  fire-room  were  falling  from  exhaus- 
tion, the  engineer  asked  Captain  Clark  to  fire  a  gun, 
because  if  the  men  could  hear  the  music  of  the  guns  and 
feel  that  they  were  in  the  thick  of  the  action  their  indom- 
itable pluck  would  enable  them  to  return  to  their  work. 

Her  primary  battery  consists  of  4  1 3-inch  guns 
mounted  in  pairs  in  turrets  fore  and  aft,  8  8-inch  guns 
mounted  in  pairs  in  four  turrets,  two  on  each  side,  and 
4  6-inch  guns,  two  on  each  side. 

Her  secondary  battery  of  rapid-fire  guns  consists  of  20 
6-pounders,  6  i -pounders,  4  Catlings  and  2  field  guns. 

The  armor  belt  of  the  "  Oregon  "  is  190  feet  long,  7^ 
feet  wide  and  18  inches  thick.  At  each  end  there  is  a 
barbette  running  from  the  protective  deck  to  the  1 3-inch 
guns,  35  feet  in  diameter,  17  inches  thick  and  12  feet 
high.  The  turrets  of  the  1 3-inch  guns  are  15  inches 
thick  and  the  bases  are  protected  by  the  barbettes.  The 
turrets  of  the  8-inch  guns  are  8  inches  thick  but  have  no 
protection  at  the  base.  A  6-inch  shell  well  placed  would 
put  them  out  of  service.  Above  the  armor  belt  up  to  the 
gun  deck  the  sides  are  protected  by  5-inch  armor.  The 
conning  tower  has  lo-inch  armor.  The  6-inch  guns  are 
protected  by  6-inch- armored  casemates. 

The  "Iowa." 

Differs  chiefly  from  the  "  Oregon  "  class  in  being  a 
little  larger,  having  a  higher  freeboard,  mounting  1 2-inch 

o  oo  ,./-.  • 

guns  in  place  of  1 3-inch,  and  6  4-inch  rapid-fire  guns   in 


368  THE    PASSING    OF    SPAIN    AND 

place  of  4  6-inch  slow-fire  guns.  The  armor  of  the 
"  Iowa  "  is  not  so  thick  as  that  of  the  "  Oregon  "  but  it 
has  been  treated  by  the  reforging  process  which  is  sup- 
posed to  increase  materially  its  efficiency.  She  is  a  fine, 
seagoing  battleship,  and  could  use  her  upper  guns  in  a 
gale  when  those  of  the  "  Oregon  "  would  be  unserviceable. 

"  Kentucky  "  and  "  Kearsarge." 

The  striking  feature  of  these  vessels  is  the  placing  of 
an  8-inch  turret  above  the  1 3-inch  turret.  By  this  ar- 
rangement the  ship  saves  the  weight  of  2  turrets  and  4 
8-inch  guns,  and  is  able  to  bring  as  many  guns  to  bear 
on  each  broadside  as  the  "Oregon."  The  disadvantages 
are  that  if  the  1 3-inch  turrets  were  disabled  it  would  put 
the  8-inch  turrets  out  of  action  also.  They  mount  14 
5-inch  rapid-firj  guns  and  should  be  superior  to  the  ships 
of  the  "  Indiana"  class. 

According  to  law  battleships  are  named  after  States, 
and  in  order  to  perpetuate  the  name  "  Kearsarge "  a 
special  act  of  Congress  was  necessary.  She  was  launched 
March  24,  1898,  and  Mrs.  Herbert  Winslow,  wife  of 
Lieutenant  Winslow  whose  father  commanded  the  old 
•'  Kearsarge  "  in  her  famous  battle  with  the  "  Alabama," 
broke  the  time-honored  bottle  of  wine  over  the  bow  of 
the  new  ship  and  said  "  I  christen  thee  '  Kearsarge.' " 

The  Kentucky  was  christened  with  a  bottle  of  water 
taken  from  a  spring  where  Abraham  Lincoln  as  a  boy 
used  to  drink.  They  should  be  ready  for  commission 
January  of  1899. 

"Alabama,"  "Wisconsin"  and  "Illinois." 

These  seagoing  battleships  will  be  complete  and  ready 
for  commission  about  October,  1899.  They  will  differ 
from  ships  now  in  commission  in  having  1 3-inch  guns 
that  can  be  fired  almost  twice  as  fast,  and  fourteen  6-inch 
rapid-fire  guns  in  place  of  8-inch  and  6-inch  slow-fire 
guns  of  the  "  Indiana  "  class. 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  369 

NEW  BATTLESHIPS.  —  By  act  of  May  4,  1897,  three  new 
battleships  were  authorized,  to  be  known  as  numbers 
ten,  eleven  and  twelve,  and  named  "  Maine,"  "  Missouri " 
and  "  Ohio."  These  ships  are  to  be  386  feet  long,  72 
feet  wide,  draw  23!  feet  of  water,  with  a  displacement  of 
11,500  tons,  fitted  with  ram  bows  and  two  military  masts 
with  fighting  tops  mounting  three  machine  guns  in  each. 

There  will  be  a  belt  of  armor  extending  from  the  bow 
as  far  astern  as  the  after  turret.  This  will  be  i6£  inches 
thick  and  7^  feet  wide  over  the  middle  portion  and  taper 
to  4  inches  thickness  at  the  bow.  Connecting  the  ends 
of  the  belt  will  be  a  transverse  bulkhead  at  least  12  inches 
thick  with  another  forward  of  the  boiler  space,  the  same 
thickness.  The  turrets  will  be  protected  by  barbettes  1 5 
inches  in  thickness  in  the  front  and  10  inches  in  the  rear. 
There  will  be  side  armor  from  the  armor  belt  up  to  the 
main  deck,  and  extending  from  barbette  to  barbette,  5^ 
inches  thick.  The  turrets  will  be  14  inches  thick.  A 
protective  deck  5  inches  thick  on  the  slopes  and  2f  inches 
thick  on  the  flat  will  extend  the  whole  length  of  each  ves- 
sel, and  about  the  water  line  will  be  a  belt  of  cellulose. 

The  primary  battery  will  consist  of  four  1 3-inch  guns 
mounted  in  two  barbette  turrets  on  the  midship  line,  one 
forward  and  one  aft,  ten  6-inch  rapid-fire  guns  on  broad- 
side of  the  main  deck  and  four  6-inch  rapid-fire  guns  on 
the  upper  deck  within  the  superstructure.  The  6-inch 
guns  will  be  protected  by  5|-inch  armor,  and  between 
the  guns  there  will  be  a  splinter  bulkhead  (partition),  i£ 
inches  thick. 

The  secondary  battery  will  consist  of  at  least  twenty- 
four  small  rapid-fire  and  machine  guns.  The  smaller 
guns  will  be  protected  by  gun  shields,  and  each  vessel 
will  carry  two  submerged  torpedo  tubes. 


24 


370 


THE    PASSING    OF    SPAIN"    AND 


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THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA. 


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372  THE    PASSING    OF    SSl'AIX    A XI) 

Armored  Cruisers. 

The  United  States  has  built  but  two  armored  cruisers, 
the  "  New  York  "  and  the  u  Brooklyn,"  and  the  war  with 
Spain  has  shown  us  how  useful  these  were  and  how 
desirable  others  would  be.  Lieutenant  Eberle  of  the 
United  States  navy,  in  the  "  Naval  Institute  "  for  March, 
says :  "  We  should  have  more  armored  cruisers,  cruisers 
that  can  fight  under  all  conditions  of  weather,  to  accom- 
pany our  battleships  for  defensive  purposes  during  the 
severe  weather.  When  a  vessel  of  the  '  Oregon '  type 
is  in  a  moderate  gale,  rolling  from  fifteen  to  twenty-five 
degrees,  with  her  main  deck  awash,  an  armored  cruiser 
of  the  '  Brooklyn '  class  could  come  along  and  'knock 
seven  bells '  out  of  her." 

Cruisers  are  Named  After  Cities.—"  New  York.  " 

The  "  New  York  "  was  the  first  of  these  vessels  built. 
She  was  authorized  by  the  act  of  Congress,  Sept.  7, 
1888,  and  the  contract  let  to  Wm.  Cramp  &  Sons  of 
Philadelphia,  Pa.  She  was  launched  in  1891  and  com- 
missioned August  i,  1893.  The  cost  of  her  hull  and 
machinery  was  $2,985,0x30;  armament  about  $1,000,000; 
whole  cost  $4,038,408.07.  She  was  the  finest  and  most 
powerful  armored  cruiser  in  the  world,  but  in  five  years 
m  irked  advances  in  naval  architecture  have  been  made 
and  she  no  longer  occupies  that  proud  position.  Sbe  is 
380  feet  6  1-2  inches  long;  64  feet  10  inches  wide  ;  and 
draws,  fully  loaded,  26  feet  8  inches  of  water,  giving  her 
8200  tons  displacement.  Her  engines  of  17,401  I.  H. 
P.  move  twin  screw  propellers  which  gave  her  a  trial 
record  of  21  knots  an  hour.  She  can  steam  13, 500  miles 
at  a  lo-knot  speed  without  re-coaling.  She  is  covered 
by  a  protective  deck  6  inches  thick  on  the  slopes  and  3 
inches  on  the  flat,  and  carries  on  her  side  a  belt  of  armor 
over  the  machinery  space,  4  inches  in  thickness.  The 
turrets  are  5  1-2  inches  thick,  and  their  bases,  turning 


THE    -\SCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  373 

machinery,  etc.,  is  protected  by  barbettes.  Her  broad- 
side guns  are  protected  by  4  inches  of  armor  and  from 
each  barbette  run  down  to  the  magazine  armored  tubes 
through  which  the  ammunition  is  hoisted  to  her  heavy 
guns. 

Her  armament  consists  of  six  8-inch  slow-fire  rifles, 
two  in  the  forward  turret,  two  in  the  aft,  an$  one  each 
in  the  broadside  turrets.  She  mounts  on  each  broadside 
six  4-inch  rapid-fire  guns.  Her  secondary  battery  of 
rapid-fire  guns  consists  of  eight  6-pdr.  and  two  i-pdr., 
four  Catlings  and  two  field  guns.  She  has  two  tubes 
for  firing  Whitehead  torpedoes. 

Her  high  freeboard  gives  her  light  and  air,  and  fine 
quarters  for  the  officers  and  crew,  and  places  her  heavy 
guns  25  feet  above  the  water  line.  The  ship  has  four 
engines,  each  screw  propeller  being  driven  by  two.  Off 
Santiao-o  the  "  Cristobal  Colon  "  had  about  seven  miles 

<r} 

the  start  of  the  "  New  York,"  which  was  slowly  steaming 
in  the  opposite  direction  with  her  forward  engines 
uncoupled  when  the  "  Colon  "  appeared,  but  in  spite  of 
all  the  disadvantages  the  "  New  York  "  caught  her  after 
a  run  of  about  forty-five  miles,  and  did  not  use  her  for- 
ward engines  either. 

The  energy  of  fire  for  one  minute  of  the  primary  bat- 
teries of  the  "  New  York  "  is  209,688  foot-tons.  It  is  to 
be  regretted  that  so  good  a  ship  as  the  "  New  York  "  is 
fitted  with  so  poor  an  armament;  8-inch  rapid-fire  guns 
are  now  made  that  have  far  more  energy  and  can  be  fired 
five  times  as  fast  as  those  of  the  "  New  York." 

"Brooklyn." 

The  "  Brooklyn"  was  authorized  by  act  of  Congress 
in  1892,  and  contract  awarded  the  Cramps  who  had  been 
so  successful  in  building  the  "  New  York."  The  vessel 
was  launched  in  1895,  and  entered  into  commission 
December,  1896.  She  has  greater  displacement,  coal 


3/4  THE    PASSING    OF    SPAIN    AND 

endurance  and  gun  power  than  the  "  New  York."  Her 
admirers  claim  that  she  has  more  speed,  for  the  "  Brook- 
lyn "  at  her  trial  averaged  21.91  knots  for  four  hours  and 
earned  a  premium  of  $350,000  for  her  builders.  But  on 
that  trial  the  "Brooklyn"  only  displaced  8,150  tons,  and 
when  fully  manned  and  equipped  she  displaces  9,215 
tons.  She  is  400  feet  6  inches  long,  64  feet  8  1-4  inches 
wide,  and  draws,  fully  loaded,  26  feet  2  inches  of  water. 
She  is  moved  by  vertical  triple  expansion  engines  of 
18,769  indicated  horse-power,  driving  twin  screw  pro- 
pellers. She  has  a  protective  deck  the  same  as  the 
"  New  York,"  6  inches  on  the  slopes  and  3  inches  on  the 
flat.  Her  turrets  are  5^  inches  in  thickness,  protected 
by  barbettes  8  inches  thick  in  front  and  4  inches  in 
the  rear.  The  boilers  are  all  below  the  protective  deck, 
placed  in  three  water-tight  compartments.  The  hull  is 
made  of  mild  steel,  and  is  subdivided  into  242  water- 
tight compartments.  For  the  greater  part  of  its  length 
the  bottom  is  double  and  3  1-2  feet  thick.  The  armor 
belt  is  192  feet  long,  8  feet  wide  and  3  inches  thick,  and 
extends  along  the  sides  opposite  the  engine  and  boiler 
spaces.  All  the  armor  is  of  Harveyized  nickel  steel. 
The  ship  has  two  military  masts,  each  with  two  fighting 
tops,  a  ram  bow,  four  torpedo  tubes,  three  very  high 
smoke  stacks,  which  are  almost  equivalent  to  giving  her 
a  forced  draft. 

The  armament  consists  of  eight  8-inch  slow-fire  guns, 
mounted  in  pairs  in  four  turrets,  one  forward,  one  aft  and 
one  on  each  side.  There  are  twelve  5-inch  rapid-fire 
guns  mounted  in  sponsons  on  each  side.  Her  secondary 
battery  consists  of  twelve  6-pdr.,  four  i-pdr.  guns,  four 
Colt  automatics,  four  machine  guns  and  two  field  guns. 
The  energy  of  gun  fire  of  the  primary  battery  for  one 
minute  is  284,168  foot  tons.  Her  splendid  service  off 
Santiago  has  made  her  name  a  familiar  one.  In  the 
battle  in  which  Cervera's  fleet  was  destroyed,  the  "  Brook- 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  375 

lyn  "  was  struck  twenty  times  by  shell  and  many  times 
by  pieces  of  bursting  shell  and  the  smaller  shot  of 
machine  guns. 

The  "  Columbia." 

The  "Columbia"  and  "Minneapolis"  were  far  and 
away  the  finest  and  speediest  protected  cruisers  in  the 
world  at  the  time  they  were  completed,  and  the  "  Colum- 
bia" holds  the  international  long-distance  record  for 
cruisers,  as  the  "  Oregon  "  does  for  battleships.  That 
she  might  be  given  the  test  of  an  ocean  voyage  she  was 
ordered  to  run  from  Southampton,  England  to  New  York 
at  full  speed.  She  left  Southampton  Friday  July  6, 
1895,  and  reached  Sandy  Hook  the  following  Friday, 
having  steamed  the  entire  distance  3,090  knots  in  6 
days,  23  hours  and  49  minutes,  at  an  average  speed  of 
18.41  knots  an  hour.  The  whole  trip  was  made  under 
natural  draft.  It  was  intended  to  make  one  day's  run 
under  forced  draft,  but  her  complement  of  men  was  not 
sufficient  to  enable  her  to  get  the  coal  from  her  farther 
bunkers  to  her  furnaces  fast  enough. 

The  "  Columbia  "  has  a  displacement  of  7,375  tons,  a 
speed  of  22.8  knots  and  an  armament  of  one  8-inch,  two 
6-inch  slow-fire  and  eight  4-inch  rapid-fire  guns  in  her 
primary  battery.  Her  secondary  battery  of  rapid-fire 
guns  consists  of  twelve  6-pdr.,  four  i-pdr.,  two  Colts  and 
one  field  gun.  Her  gun  power  is  not  formidable,  but 
she  was  built  for  speed  rather  than  fighting. 

The  "Minneapolis." 

The  sister  ship  of  the  "  Columbia  "  closely  resembling 
her  in  most  respects.  She  has  two  very  large  smoke- 
stacks in  place  of  the  four  smaller  ones  of  the  "  Colum- 
bia," carries  more  coal,  has  more  powerful  engines  and  a 
little  higher  speed,  having  the  record  of  23.07  knots. 
Her  armament  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  "  Columbia.** 


3/6  THE    PASSING    OF    SPAIN    AND 

The  "Olympia." 

Dewey's  famous  flagship  is  our  most  powerful  pro- 
tected cruiser.  She  has  a  speed  of  21.7  knots  and  a 
powerful  armament  of  four  8-inch  slow-fire  guns  in  pairs 
in  two  turrets  of  Harveyized  steel  3^  inches  thick,  whose 
bases  are  protected  by  barbettes  of  4-inch  nickel-steel,  an 
unusual  protection  for  the  armament  of  so  light  a  cruiser, 
ten  5-inch  rapid-fire  broadside  guns  mounted  in  spon- 
sons  4  inches  thick.  The  arrangement  is  such  that  she 
can  fire  five  of  them  directly  ahead  or  astern  and  use 
five  of  them  in  broadside.  Her  secondary  battery  con- 
sists of  fourteen  6-pdr.,  seven  i-pdr.,  four  Catlings  and  one 
field  gun. 

The  following  table  will  show  the  strength  of  the  United 
States  in  protected  cruisers,  many  of  them  have  been 
refitted  and  the  "  Newark,"  "  Charleston  "  and  "  Chicago  " 
have  been  rebuilt. 

Ram  "Katahdin." 

The  "  Katahdin  "  is  the  only  ship  of  its  kind  in  any 
navy  in  the  world.  She  was  authorized  in  1889,  and  went 
into  commission  in  1896.  She  is  250  feet  and  9  inches 
long,  43  feet  and  5  inches  wide,  and  draws  16  feet  of 
water,  and  has  a  speed  of  16.11  knots.  The  two  cuts 
shown  of  her  give  a  good  idea  of  her  peculiar  shape  that 
enables  her  to  turn  easily  in  the  water.  Her  turtle-back 
deck  is  of  6-inch  armor  on  the  sides,  tapering  to  two 
inches  on  top.  The  conning  tower  rising  above  this  is 
heavily  armored  and  when  ready  for  action,  water  is  let 
into  some  of  her  apartments  until  the  edges  of  the  boat 
are  beneath  the  water  line.  Below  she  is  protected  by  an 
armored  belt  five  feet  wide,  ranging  from  six  to  three 
inches  thick.  In  these  days  when  the  high  power  gun 
seems  to  have  lately  demonstrated  its  efficiency,  the  value 
of  the  ram  remains  to  be  proven,  especially  as  this  one 
has  a  speed  less  than  that  of  the  battleships. 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA. 


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OF  LAUNCH 

Columbia  . 

July  a"),  1892. 

Minneapoli 

August  12,  189 

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THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA. 


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380  THE    1'ASSl.NG    OF    Sl'AIN    AND 

Dynamite  Gun  Boat  "  Vesuvius." 

The  United  States  possesses  in  this  vessel  the  only  one 
of  its  type  found  in  any  navy.  She  was  built  by  William 
Cramp  £  Sons  of  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  and  cost  $350,000, 
exclusive  of  her  armanent.  This  consist  of  three  1 5-inch 
dynamite  guns,  with  a  secondary  battery  of  three  3-pound 
rapid-fire  guns.  She  has  a  displacement  of  929  tons  and 
a  speed  record  on  her  trial  of  2142  knots.  The  peculiar 
feature  of  the  "  Vesuvius  "  is  the  three  dynamite  tubes, 
54  feet  long,  built  into  the  boat  and  passing  from  below 
the  water  line  up  through  her  deck,  at  an  angle  of  about 
1 8°.  The  screw-shape  vane  gives  a  rotary  motion  to  the 
projectile  when  fired  and  keeps  it  from  turning  end  over 
end.  Four  sizes  of  the  projectiles  are  made,  the  largest 
about  15  inches  in  diameter,  and  carrying  about  250 
pounds  of  gun  cotton.  The  "  Vesuvius  "  is  really  a  float- 
ing gun  carriage.  The  guns  are  aimed  by  turning  the 
boat  until  the  tubes  point  in  the  proper  direction.  The 
elevation  is  given  by  the  amount  of  compressed  air  ad- 
mitted into  the  gun.  Great  things  have  been  expected  of 
her,  but  as  yet  she  is  almost  an  unknown  quantity.  The 
work  done  at  Santiago  seems  to  have  been  to  frighten 
rather  than  to  harm  people.  In  experiments  made  by 
the  ordnance  department  last  year  307  pounds  of  wet  gun 
cotton  was  hung  against  the  face  of  a  thick  steel  plate  and 
a  chicken  tied  43  feet  away.  The  heat  of  the  explosion 
only  burned  the  face  of  the  plate,  and  the  chicken  was 
scorched,  but  not  killed. 

Unprotected  Cruisers. 

The  United  States  has  three  unprotected  cruisers,  the 
44  Detroit,"  "  Marblehead  "  and  "  Montgomery,"  each  hav- 
ing a  displacement  of  2,089  tons.  The  "  Marblehead  " 
will  be  remembered  for  her  effective  work  in  support  of 
the  marines  landed  at  Guantanamo  Bay,  Cuba.  They 
each  have  an  armanent  of  10  5-inch  rapid-fire  guns,  with 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  381 

a  secondary  battery  of  6  6-pounders,  2  i -pounders,  2 
Colt's  and  one  field  gun.  They  have  no  armor  protec- 
tion except  gun  shields. 

Unarmored  Steel  Gunboats. 

"  Bancroft,"  "  Bennington,"  "  Castine,"  "  Concord,' 
"  Helena,"  "  Machias,"  "  Nashville,"  "  Petrel,"  "Wilming- 
ton "  and  "  Yorktov/n."  The  "  Machias,"  the  largest,  has 
a  displacement  of  1,777  tons;  the  "Bancroft,"  the  small- 
est, 839  tons.  "  Petrel,"  892  tons,  was  the  little  boat  sent 
into  the  shoal  water  to  finish  off  the  Spanish  fleet  at 
Munila.  The  "  Castine,"  "  Helena,"  "  Machias,"  "  Nash- 
ville "  and  "  Wilmington  "  each  mount  8  4-inch  rapid-fire 
guns  in  their  main  battery ;  the  "  Bennington,"  "  Con- 
cord" and  "  Yorktown  "  each  mounts  66-inch  slow-fire 
guns ;  the  "  Petrel "  4  6-inch  slow-fire,  and  the  "  Ban- 
croft "  4  4-inch  rapid-fire.  They  all  have  some  machine 
guns. 

Composite  Gunboats. 

"Annapolis,"  '  "  Marietta,"  "  Newport,"  "  Princeton," 
"Vicksburg"  and  "Wheeling."  These  are  all  little 
boats  of  1,000  tons  displacement,  and  each  has  an  arma- 
ment of  6  4-inch  rapid-fire  guns,  with  a  secondary  bat- 
tery 4  6-pounders,  2  i -pounders',  one  Colt  and  one  field 
gun.  The  "  Marietta  "  will  be  remembered  for  her  excep- 
tionally long  cruise  from  Alaska  to  San  Francisco,  thence 
around  the  Horn  to  Florida  with  the  battleship  "Oregon." 

Torpedo-boats  and  Torpedo-boat  Destroyers. 

These  are  named  after  distinguished  naval  officers  not 
living.  Of  these  there  are  built  the  following  tor- 
pedo-boats: "  Gushing,"  "  Ericsson,"  "  Foote,"  "  Stilleto," 
"  Porter." 


382 


THE     PASSING    OF    SPAIN    AND 


There  are  now  being  built,  or  authorized  to  be  built 


TORPEDO-BOATS. 

"Rogers,"  "Barney," 

"Winslow,"  "Biddle," 

"Dahlgren,"  "  Blakely," 

"T.  A.  M.  Craven,"  "  DeLong," 

"  Davis,"  "  Nicholson, 

"Fox,"  "O'Brien," 

"Morris,"  "  Shubrick," 

"  Talbot,"  "  Stockton," 

"(iwin,"  "Thornton," 

"Mackenzie,"  "Tingey," 

'Bagley,"  "Wilkes." 

Secretary  Long  in  his  report  for  1897  summarized  the 
naval  strength  of  the  United  States  as  follows: 


TORPEDO-BOAT 
"  Bainbridge," 
"  Barry."  ' 

"  Chauiicey,'' 
"  Dale," 

"  Decatur,"  ' 

"  Hopkins," 
"  Hull," 
«'  Lawrence,"  ' 


DESTROY  I:KX 
'  Macdonough, 
'  Paul  Jones," 
'  Perry," 
'  Preble." 
'  Stewart," 
'  Truxtun," 
'  Whrpple," 
'  Worden." 


First-class  battleships 9 

Second-class  battleships 2 

Armored  cruisers 2 

Armored  rams I 

Double-turreted  monitors 6 

Single-turreted   monitors 13 

Protected  cruisers 13 

Unprotected  cruisers 3 

Gun-boats 10 

Composite  gun-boats 6 


Special  class 6 

Steel  torpedo-boats 22 

Wood  torpedo-boats i 

Iron  cruising  vessels 5 

Wooden  cruising  vessels. n 

Sailing  vessels 6 

Tugs 14 

Wooden  steam  vessels  unfit  for  sea 

service 8 

Wooden  sailing  vessels  unfit  for  sea 

service 6 


Of  these,  109  were  available  for  service.  According 
to  the  report  of  the  Navy  Department,  July  ist,  1898,  we 
had  301  vessels,  of  which  236  were  available,  showing 
that  in  six  months  we  had  built  or  purchased  1 26  vessels 
and  had  lost  only  one,  the  "  Maine.''  Some  of  these  were 
tugs,  colliers,  receiving  ships,  etc.  Of  the  236,  38  were 
auxiliary  cruisers  and  converted  yachts. 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  383 

CHAPTER  XL 
Armor,  Ordnance  and  Defense. 

Something  resembling  armor  was  used  in  ancient 
days,  but  it  was  chiefly  to  strengthen  the  sides  of  the 
vessel  to  withstand  the  shock  of  the  ram.  Coming  down 
to  modern  times,  the  Stevens  family,  who  were  such  dis- 
tinguished engineers,  demonstrated  that  four  inches  of 
wrought  iron  plate  would  keep  out  spherical  shot  fired 
from  the  smooth-bore  cannon  of  that  day.  Prior  to  1812 
explosive  shells  had  been  fired  only  from  mortars,  but 
Colonel  Bomford  of  the  United  States  army  devised  a 
long-chambered  gun  for  firing  shell  directly  at  the  tar- 
get. This  was  called  a  columbiad.  Little  progress  was 
made  in  the  development  of  the  idea  here,  but  General 
Paixhan,  a  celebrated  artillerist  of  France,  took  up  the 
idea  and  in  1822  perfected  it.  At  the  battle  of  Sinope 
nine  Russian  ships  armed  with  smooth-bore  shell  guns 
opposed  eleven  Turkish  ships  armed  with  the  ordinary 
cannon  of  the  day.  The  battle  lasted  about  an  hour  and 
only  one  Turkish  ship  escaped.  French  inventors  were 
quick  to  realize  the  importance  of  this  lesson,  Napoleon 
III.  ordering  the  construction  of  his  iron-plated  floating 
batteries,  used  with  such  great  effect  at  Kimburn  about 
two  years  later ;  and  the  great  French  naval  engineer, 
Depuy  De  Lome,  designed  armored  frigates. 

Wrought  iron  plates  had  defeated  the  common  shell 
and  the  solid  round  shot,  and  now  began  a  battle-royal 
between  the  gunner  and  the  armorer.  The  spherical 
shot  gave  place  to  an  elongated  form  with  a  sharp  point. 
This  penetrated  the  plate  and  the  gun  scored  its  first 
victory.  The  armorer,  seeing  he  must  defeat  the  pro- 
jectile by  breaking  it  up,  welded  a  face  of  steel  over  the 
wrought-iron  backing  and  evolved  "compound  armor." 
Then  the  "Palliser"  shot  was  cast,  the  point  "chilled," 
making  it  very  hard,  and  this  penetrated  and  broke  up 


3^4  THE    PASSING    OF    SI' A IX    AND 

the  steel  face  of  the  armor-plate.  The  armorer  replied 
with  a  solid  steel  plate  and  the  defeat  of  the  gun  was 
predicted,  but  it  was  not  for  long.  A  steel  projectile  was 
soon  used  and  the  gun  scored  another  victory.  Then 
came  the  nickel  alloy,  which  rendered  the  armor  tougher 
and  less  likely  to  break  upon  attack,  but  the  gunner  re- 
plied by  adding  chromium  to  the  steel  he  used,  and  pro- 
duced a  projectile  equal  to  the  nickel  armor., 

Harveyized  Armor. 

The  American  Harvey  improved  upon  nickel  steel  by 
placing  the  armor-plate  in  the  chamber  of  a  furnace,  cov- 
ering the  face  with  charcoal  and  heating  the  whole  until 
the  charcoal  gave  off  some  of  its  carbon,  which  was  taken 
up  by  the  face  of  the  armor-plate.  The  plate  was  then 
"tempered,"  and  Harveyized  armor  made  a  sensation  in 
military  circles. 

William  Corey,  of  Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  in  1895,  patented  a 
method  for  compressing  the  plate  after  it  had  passed 
through  all  the  former  processes.  According  to  his 
theory,  super-carbonizing  tends  to  crystallize  steel.  By 
his  method  the  plate  is  reheated  to  a  temperature  of 
about  2,000°  and  subjected  to  enormous  pressure,  which 
restores  its  former  tenacity  and  actually  reduces  the 
cubic  contents  of  the  plate  about  $%. 

In  response  to  these  methods,  the  artillerist,  by  a  unique 
device,  added  15$  to  the  efficiency  of  his'projectile.  He 
covered  the  hard  tempered  steel  point  with  a  cap  of  soft 
steel,  increased  its  velocity,  and  achieved  a  wonderful 
result.  A  6-inch  shell  passed  through  a  ro-inch  reforged 
Harveyized  plate,  twelve  inches  of  oak  timbers,  three 
boiler-plates  of  7.1 6-inch  wrought  iron,  and  buried  itself 
eight  feet  in  the  sand  practically  uninjured.  A  recent 
trial  at  the  Indian  Head  proving  grounds,  Virginia,  of  a 
6-inch  plate  made  by  the  Carnegie  company,  according 
to  German  methods,  showed  a  marked  advance  in  the 


THE    ASCENDENCY     OF    AMERICA.  385 

armor.  At  present  Americans  make  better  thin  plate 
than  found  elsewhere,  but  the  French  and  German 
methods  have  produced  better  heavy  plate.  The  Beth- 
lehem Iron  Company  and  the  Carnegie  Company  have 
secured  rights  to  use  European  methods. 

At  present  the  gun  has  much  the  better  of  the  argu- 
ment, and  its  resources  are  not  exhausted.  A  service 
charge  in  the  United  States  navy  produces  a  pressure 
within  the  gun  of  about  fifteen  tons  per  square  inch. 
Wire-wound  guns  have  sustained  a  pressure  per  square 
inch  of  thirty-two  tons,  and  slow-burning  powder  has 
given  a  velocity  of  over  3,000  feet  a  second,  and  the 
gunner  has  these  in  reserve. 

Velocity  in  Foot-seeonds. 

This  term  means  the  number  of  feet  a  projectile  flies 
in  a  second.  The  rate  of  speed  at  the  muzzle  of  a  gun  is 
called  muzzle  velocity.  "High-power  guns"  in  the 
United  States  are  those  whose  projectiles  have  a  muzzle 
velocity  of  2,000  or  more  feet  a  second.  Sound  travels 
1,100  feet  a  second,  and  a  bullet  from  the  best  modern 
rifles  moves  more  than  twice  as  fast. 

The  three  chief  reasons  why  a  high  velocity  is  desir- 
able are : 

1.  When   shooting   at   an  object  in  motion,  that  the 
bullet  may  shoot  the  mark  before  the  object  has  time  to 
move  far. 

2.  Penetration   and   energy  are  greater  with   a  high 
velocity,  being  approximately  in  proportion  to  the  square 
of  the  velocity.     A  shot  with  a  velocity  of  2,000  feet  a 
second  would  penetrate  four  times  as   far  as  a  shot  with 
a  velocity  of  1,000  feet  a  second. 

3.  The  path  of  the  projectile  is  not  a  straight  line,  but 
a  curve,  and  at  long  range  part  of  its  course  is  so  far 
from  a  straight  line  as  to  be  above  the  target  at  which  it 

O  *J 

is  fired.     Danger  space  is  the  horizontal  distance  through 

25 


386  THE    PASSING    OF    SPA IX    AXD 

which  the  projectile  passes  when  it  is  neither  too  far 
above  nor  too  far  below  to  strike  the  target.  The  higher 
the  velocity  the  straighter  the  path  of  the  ball.  A  shell 
thrown  from  a  mortar  at  an  angle  of  55°  or  60°  has  a 
danger  space  as  wide  as  the  deck  of  the  vessel  at  which 
it  is  aimed ;  a  shell  from  a  u  high  power  gun  "  aimed 
directly  at  the  target  has  a  much  wider  danger  space. 

Gun  Making. 

The  invention  of  gunpowder  is  popularly  ascribed  to 
two  monks,  Roger  Bacon,  who  wrote  of  it  in  1267  and 
Bertholdus  Schwartz  about  1320,  but  there  is  ample 
evidence  to  show  that  gunpowder  or  something  very 
much  like  it  was  used  by  the  Chinese  in  the  propulsion 
of  rockets  1,000  years  before,  and  the  exact  formula  for 
gunpowder  was  known  to  the  Arab  chemists  as  early  as  the 
close  of  the  8th  century.  The  Moors  early  introduced 
fire-arms  into  western  Europe  and  are  said  to  have  used 
artillery  against  Saragossa  (A.  D.  1 1 18)  and  it  seems  cer- 
tain that  a  little  later  they  defended  Niebla  by  machi- 
nery which  threw  darts  and  stones  by  the  means  of  fire. 
Artillery  is  said  to  have  been  used  by  Henry  III.  of 
England  against  the  Duke  of  Gloucester  in  1267,  by  the 
Spaniards  against  Cordova  in  1280  and  it  is  shown  by 
the  expense  accounts  of  Edward  III.  that  cannon  'were 
used  in  his  wars. 

Until  recently,  nearly  all  guns  were  made  from  cast 
iron.  Sir  William  Armstrong  said  that  for  his  first 
experiments  he  was  unable  to  obtain  steel  large  enough 
to  make  a  gun  with  calibre  one  inch  in  diameter.  It 
was  the  need  of  some  material  stronger  than  iron  for  use 
in  projectiles  and  guns  that  stimulated  Bessemer  in  his 
effort  to  make  cheap  steel.  His  discovery  revolutionized 
gun  making. 

A  "Built-up"  Gun. 

The  principle  parts  of  the  gun  are,  the  tube,  a  hollow 
steel  forging  extending  the  full  length  of  the  bore,  the 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  387 

jacket,  covering  about  two-fifths  of  the  tube;  the  jacket- 
hoops  shrunken  over  the  jacket ;  and  the  chase-hoops 
shrunken  over  that  part  of  the  tube  in  front  of  the  jacket. 

The  gun  is  subjected  to  two  stresses,  one  transverse, 
the  other  longitudinal.  The  tube  takes  up  the  greater 
part  of  the  transverse,  and  the  jacket  the  longitudinal 
stress. 

Let  us  suppose  a  half  dozen  hoops,  placed  one  within 
another  and  fitting  loosely.  An  expansive  force  exerted 
within  the  inner  hoop  will  burst  it  before  much  stress  is 
felt  upon  the  next  hoop  and  the  stress  being  delivered 
from  one  to  another  successively,  hardly  more  force  is 
required  to  burst  all  the  hoops  than  to  burst  any  one. 
Suppose  another  arrangement  of  the  hoops  by  which  the' 
first  hoop  is  clasped  by  the  second  and  the  second  clasped 
tighter  by  the  third,  and  so  on  to  the  outer  one.  The 
expansive  force  then  exerted  within  the  innermost  hoop 
must  be  sufficient  to  burst  all  of  them  combined.  The 
built-up  gun  is  based  on  that  principle. 

The  steel  in  a  gun  must  be  of  the  best  quality.  In 
battle  the  gun  will  be  hit  by  projectiles;  in  firing  the 
riflirig  will  be  subjected  to  enormous  stress,  and  the 
gases  formed  by  the  exploding  powder  have  a  destructive 
effect  upon  the  steel.  The  United  States  uses  steel 
made  by  the  "  Siemens  Open  Hearth  Process,"  subjected 
to  the  Whitworth  process  of  fluid  compression.  When 
the  steel  is  melted  it  is  poured  into  a  strong  cylinder  and 
subjected  to  hydraulic  pressure,  which  squeezes  out  the 
gas  or  air  bubbles  within  the  casting  and  makes  the  metal 
much  denser  and  devoid  of  flaws.  Severe  tests  of  the 
metal  are  made,  and  it  must  show  an  elastic  limit  of  from 
46,000  to  50,000  pounds  to  the  square  inch  without  a 
permanent  change  in  form.  In  its  test  for  tensile  strength 
it  must  stretch  at  least  fifteen  per  cent  before  giving  way 
under  a  stress  of  from  86,000  to  93,000  pounds  to  the 
square  inch.  The  "tube  "  is  cast  solid,  then  bored  and  a 


388  THE      PASSING    OF    SPAIN    AND 

heavy  steel  shaft  (mandrel)  passed  through  on  which  the 
tube  is  subjected  to  hydraulic  pressure  or  hammer  forg- 
ing to  enlarge  and  elongate  it.  It  is  then  roughly  fin- 
ished, tempered  in  oil  and  sent  to  the  gun  factory  at 
Washington.  Upon  arriving  at  the  shop  the  tube  is  put 
into  an  enormous  lathe  and  turned  to  exactly  the  required 
diameter,  then  placed  upright  in  a  pit  adjoining  a  furnace 
wherein  the  jacket  is  being  heated.  The  jacket  has  been 
carefully  bored  out  and  its  inner  diameter  is  slightly 
smaller  than  the  outer  diameter  of  the  tube.  It  is  placed 
within  a  chamber,  where  it  is  heated  by  air  blown  through 
a  white  hot  furnace  burning  crude  oil.  It  is  subjected  to 
this  for  twenty-nine  hours,  until  the  temperature  is  raised 
to  about  600°  Fahrenheit.  It  is  carefully  measured  to  see 
it  at  it  is  expanded  enough  to  go  over  the  tube,  seized  by 
a  crane,  carried  to  the  pit  where  the  tube  is  and  lowered 
over  it  at  about  the  rate  of  a  foot  a  minute  until  it  clasps 
the  rear  part  of  the  tube  and  extends  back  of  it  far  enough 
to  form  the  screw  box  where  the  breech  mechanism  is 
contained.  When  in  the  desired  position  the  interior  of 
the  gun  is  cooled  by  streams  of  water,  When  thoroughly 
cool  it  is  placed  in  the  lathe,  the  other  part  carefully 
turned  to  a  new  diameter  and  the  other  hoops  shrunk  on. 
Each  process  is  expensive  and  requires  the  greatest  care. 

Breech  Mechanism. 

The  breech  of  the  gun  is  closed  by  a  steel  plug, 
threaded  and  screwed  in.  In  the  innerpart  of  the 
jacket  that  projects  over  the  rear  of  the  tube  (screw- 
box),  is  cut  a  heavy  screw  thread.  It  is  then  di- 
vided into  12  parts  and  alternate  divisions  cut  away,  so 
that  half  the  screw-box  is  made  up  of  threaded  surface 
and  half  of  channels  \vhere  the  thread  has  been  cut  away. 
The  breech-plug  is  cut  in  the  same  manner,  and  when 
in  position  can  be  pushed  directly  into  the  gun,  the 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA. 


389 


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threaded  portion  of  the  breech-plug  fitting  the  channel 
in  the  jacket,  and  the  threaded  portion  of  the  jacket 
fitting  the  corresponding  channel  in  the  breech-plug. 
The  breech-plug  is  then  given  a  slight  turn  and  the 
threaded  portion  of  the  plug  moves  into  the  correspond- 
ing threaded  portion  of  the  screw-box,  and  the  breech  is 
securely  closed.  In  the  cut  of  the  6-inch  rapid-fire  gun 
the  breech  is  open,  the  screw-box  and  the  threaded  por- 
tion of  the  plug  are  each  shown,  but  in  this  case  every 
other  sixth  part  of  the  circumference  has  been  cut  away, 
instead  of  every  other  twelfth  as  in  the  1 3-inch  gun. 

By  means  of  a  crank-like  handle  turning  bevel  gear- 
ing, the  breech-plug  is  turned  one-sixth  or  one-twelfth  as 
required,  the  threads  no  longer  interlock  and  the  plug  is 
moved  directly  back  until  it  rests  on  the  tray,  the  whole 
then  swinging  to  one  side,  exposing  the  powder  chamber 
and  giving  a  chance  to  load  the  gun.  Compare  the  cuts 
of  the  13-inch  and  6-inch  guns. 

Recoil. 

The  gun  moves  backward  with  the  same  energy  the 
projectile  moves  forward  and  if  not  controlled  this  force 
would  tear  the  ship  to  pieces  or  drive  the  gun  through 
the  deck. 

The  cannon  of  the  4th  of  July  occasions  with  which 
the  boys  are  familiar  have  projections  called  trunnions 
on  which  the  guns  rest,  but  no  trunnion  ever  forged 
could  withstand  the  recoil  from  a  large  cannon  and  even 
if  the  trunnions  held,  it  would  only  be  to  tear  the  deck 
out  of  the  ship.  The  recoil  of  a  1 6-inch  gun  is  more 
than  64,0x30  tons,  equivalent  to  lifting  64  loads  of  hay  as 
high  as  the  Eiffel  Tower  and  yet  this  enormous  force  is 
controlled  without  allowing  the  gun  to  move  more  than 
three  times  the  diameter  of  its  bore.  This  is  done  by 
means  of  pistons  working  in  "  recoil  cylinders"  (see  cut 
1 3-inch  gun).  The  thirteen-inch  has  four  recoil  cylinders 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  39! 

fastened  to  the  sleeve,  with  piston-rods  fastened  to  the 
rear  of  the  gun.  The  piston  head  is  attached  to  the 
piston-rod  and  is  in  the  front  part  of  the  cylinder  when 
the  gun  is  fired.  The  recoil  cylinders  are  stationary. 
When  the  gun  is  fired  it  slides  back  in  the  sleeve  and 
draws  the  piston-rod  and  head  back  through  the  cylinder. 
The  cylinders  are  filled  with  water  for  the  heavy  guns 
and  a  mixture  of  water  and  glycerine  for  the  lighter 
ones.  Grooves  are  cut  in  the  inner  surface  of  the 
recoil  cylinder  and  as  the  piston-head  starts  back  the 
water  passes  the  grooves,  but  in  the  back  part  of  the 
cylinder  the  grooves  grow  shallower  until  they  disappear, 
the  resistance  to  the  piston-head  becoming  greater  and 
greater  until  the  gun  is  brought  to  a  stop  with  a  recoil 
of  only  39  inches.  The  water  in  front  of  the  piston- 
head  escapes  through  a  valve  and  the  hydraulic  engine 
forces  water  into  the  cylinder  in  the  rear  of  the  piston- 
head  which  drives  it  to  the  front  of  the  recoil  cylinder 
and  returns  the  gun  to  its  former  position  "  in  battery." 

The  total  length  of  the  gun  is  40  feet;  weight,  60  1-2 
tons  ;  the  greatest  diameter  of  the  gun  body,  49  inches ; 
the  length  of  the  rifled  bore,  30.87  feet,  rifling  52  grooves 
.05  of  an  inch  deep.  The  projectile  for  the  gun  will 
weigh  1,100  pounds,  is  made  of  forged  steel;  its  length 
about  three  times  its  diameter,  fired  by  a  charge  of  550 
pounds  of  brown  powder.  This  will  give  a  pressure  in 
the  powder  chamber  of  1 5  tons  to  the  square  inch,  move 
the  projectile  with  a  velocity  of  2,100  foot-seconds,  give  a 
muzzle  energy  of  33,627  foot-tons  and  penetrate  26  2-3 
inches  of  steel  at  the  muzzle.  This  gun  fires  a  round  in 
three  minutes ;  the  new  one  will  have  twice  that  speed. 

The  largest  gun  made  in  the  United  States  is  the  16- 
inch  rifle,  which  when  mounted  will  constitute  a  part  of 
the  harbor  defense  of  New  York  City.  This  is  one  of 
the  largest  and  most  powerful  cannon  in  the  world.  The 
gun  when  complete  will  weigh  about  140  tons.  Its  ex- 


3Q2  THE    PASSING    OF    SPAIN    AND 

t 

treme  length  will  be  nearly  50  feet,  the  shell  will  weigh 
2, 370  pounds;  1,060  pounds  of  brown  powder  will  give 
the  projectile  a  velocity  at  the  muzzle  of  2,000  feet  a  sec- 
ond and  an  energy  of  64,084  foot-tons.  Elevated  at  an 
angle  of  45°,  the  extreme  range  of  the  gun  should  be  13.6 
miles.  It  will  be  used  only  for  harbor  defense.  The 
friends  of  the  gun  claim  that  no  ship  on  earth  can  stand 
the  terrible  crush  ing  effect  of  one  of  its  projectiles  at  close 
range,  and  the  opponents  of  the  gun  say  that  it  is  ex- 
tremely unlikely  that  a  ship  in  motion  could  be  hit  by  it. 

Twelve-inch  Mortars. 

Modern  mortars  differ  only  from  breech-loading 
rifles  in  length.  They  pass  through  the  same  pro- 
cesses of  construction,  load  at  the  breech  and  are 
rifled.  They  fire  explosive  shells  at  a  high  angle. 
The  shell  is  expected  to  describe  a  huge  curve  and 
descend  upon  the  practically  unprotected  deck  of  the 
attacking  ship.  The  thick  armor  of  a  ship  is  carried  on 
the  sides  to  withstand  direct  fire ;  it  is  possible  to  give 
but  little  protection  against  vertical  or  "  plunging  "  fire. 
The  12-inch  mortars  defending  the  harbor  of  New  York 
(see  cut)  are  placed  in  pits  beneath  the  surface  of  the 
ground.  Their  location  is  unknown  to  the  general  pub- 
lic, and  there  is  nothing  visible  at  a  distance  to  indicate 
their  presence.  The  field  defended  is  laid  off  into  a  series 
of  imaginary  squares,  and  the  gunner  in  the  pit  trains  the 
mortar  to  bear  upon  any  particular  square  as  directed.  It 
is  not  necessary  that  the  gunner  see  the  enemy;  his 
movements  can  be  directed  from  a  distance  by  telephone. 
The  mortar  throws  a  shell  12  inches  in  diameter,  weigh- 
ing 1,000  pounds  and  charged  with  100  pounds  of  explo- 
sive. They  fire  at  an  angle  of  35°  to  65°  and  have  an 
effective  range  of  five  or  six  miles.  This  half  ton  of  steel 
falling  from  the  clouds  would  easily  penetrate  the  protec- 
tive deck  of  any  ship  afloat,  and  even  if  it  didn't  explode 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  393 

in  the  magazine  or  machinery  compartments,  would  pass 
cm  through  the  bottom  of  the  ship. 

Disappearing  Gun  Carriages. 

Heavy  guns  used  for  narbor  defense  are  now 
mounted  on  disappearing  gun  carriages.  The  Buffing- 
ton-Crosier  carriage  is  probably  as  good  as  any,  if  not 
the  best  in  the  world.  The  gun  is  held  on  four  long 
arms  moved  by  hydraulic  or  pneumatic  machinery.  It  is 
loaded  beneath  the  level  of  the  parapet  over  which  it  is 
raised,  remains  but  an  instant  to  be  fired  and  then  disap- 
pears from  sight.  Disappearing  gun  carriages,  mines 
and  heavy  breech-loading  mortars  have  increased  materi- 
ally the  resources  of  the  defense. 

Extreme  Range, 

Several  years  ago  a  German  945-inch  Krupp  gun 
with  an  elevation  of  45°  attained  a  range  of  12.42 
miles.  It  is  estimated  that  the  projectile  rose  4.6 
miles  above  a  straight  line  drawn  from  the  firing  point 
to  the  target ;  or,  in  other  words,  the  gun  might  be  fired 
over  any  range  ol  mountains  in  America  and  hit  the  tar- 
get on  the  other  side.  The  celebrated  "  Queen's  Jubilee  " 
shot,  fired  in  England,  1888,  was  made  with  a  wire-wound 
9.2-inch  gun;  the  380  pound  projectile  was  given  a  muz- 
zle velocity  of  2,360  feet  per  second,  and  the  gun  with  an 
elevation  of  45°  had  a  range  of  12.4  miles.  Guns  on  ship- 
board cannot  be  given  an  extreme  elevation.  The  size 
of  the  turret  ports  will  not  allow  it  and  the  gun  in  its  re- 
coil would  strike  the  deck.  Guns  in  a  turret  can  only  be 
given  an  elevation  of  about  17°  and  have  an  effective 
range  of  perhaps  six  miles.  The  extreme  range  on  land 
is  believed  to  be  y£  miles  for  the  6-inch  gun ;  9  miles  for 
the  8-inch  gun  ;  1 1  miles  for  the  lo-inch  gun  ;  1 i£  miles 
for  the  12-inch  gun  ;  13^  miles  for  the  1 6-inch  gun. 


394  THE    PASSING   OF    SPAIN    AND 

Rapid-fire  Guns. 

In  the  old  style  gun  the  crew  must  get  out  of  the 
way  of  the  recoil,  the  gun  must  be  sponged  after 
each  shot  to  put  out  any  lingering  sparks  of  fire  be- 
fore placing  the  powder  charge,  the  breech  mechanism 
was  clumsy  and  slow,  and  after  all  these  operations  had 
been  performed  the  gun  must  be  aimed.  Now,  ammu- 
nition for  rapid-fire  guns  is  put  up  in  metallic  cases  like 
revolver  cartridge;  the  sponge  is  not  required,  the  barrel 
of  the  gun  alone  recoils,  the  sights  have  been  removed 
from  the  barrel  and  placed  on  the  carriage  and  the  gun- 
ner simply  keeps  his  sights  on  the  target,  pays  no  atten- 
tion to  the  loading  of  the  gun,  and  squeezes  an  electric 
bulb  when  the  gun  is  ready  to  be  fired.  The  great  weight 
of  breech  mechanism,  powder  and  projectile,  precludes 
making  rapid-firers  of  the  extremely  heavy  guns.  The 
United  States  is  behind  other  nations  in  this  respect.  On 
the  Chilian  cruiser  "  Blanco  Encalada  "  four  rounds  were 
fired  in  62  seconds  from  an  8-inch  gun  and  the  ammu- 
nition taken  from  the  magazine  below  the  protective 
deck.  In  the  English  navy  a  crew  at  drill  fired  an 
Elswick  8-inch  gun  three  rounds  in  28  seconds.  On 
board  the  "  Royal  Sovereign  "  a  1 3.5-inch  gun  was  fired 
seven  rounds  in  12  minutes,  making  six  hits  on  a  target 
at  a  range  of  1,600  to  2,200  yards,  while  the  ship  was 
steaming  at  eight-knot  speed.  A  similar  gun  on 
the  "  Empress  of  India"  fired  four  rounds  in  six  minutes. 
The  following  table  shows  what  the  best  guns  in  the 
United  States  navy  can  do.  One  or  more  varieties  of 
some  of  the  guns  are  made  and  we  have  selected  the  best. 
The  table  is  compiled  from  the  1898  edition  of  Radford's 
"  Naval  Gunnery." 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA. 


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396  THE    PASSING   OF    SPAIN    AND 

Secondary  Battery. 

Smaller  rapid-fire  guns  make  up  the  secondary  bat- 
tery. Of  these  the  Maxim,  the  Driggs-Schroeder  and 
the  Hotchkiss  are  the  ones  used  in  the  United  States. 
\Vhcn  these  6-pound  guns  were  tested  prior  to  purchase 
by  the  Government,  the  Hotchkiss  fired  28  rounds  in  one 
minute,  83  rounds  in  three  minutes;  the  Maxim,  20 
rounds  in  one  minute  and  65  rounds  in  three  minutes; 
the  Driggs-Schroeder,  34  rounds  in  one  minute  and  83 
rounds  in  three  minutes.  The  honors  are  supposed  to 
be  about  even  between  the  Hotchkiss  and  the  Driggs- 
Schroeder.  The  latter  gun  is  made  by  the  celebrated 
firm  of  Cramp  Brothers  of  Philadelphia.  The  accuracy 
of  the  guns  is  remarkable.  Ten  rounds  were  fired  at  a 
target  26  feet  by  40  feet,  at  a  distance  of  a  mile,  all  hit- 
ting the  target,  and  the  most  of  them  pretty  close  to  the 
center  of  impact. 

Machine  Guns. 

These  guns  have  a  caliber  and  range  about  equal 
to  that  of  a  modern  rifle.  The  Catling,  so  called  from 
its  inventor,  Dr.  Richard  Catling  of  the  United  States, 
consists  of  ten  barrels  (sometimes  five),  made  to  turn 
something  like  the  cylinder  of  a  revolver,  each  barrel 
being  fired  as  it  comes  opposite  a  given  point.  The 
gun  is  operated  by  turning  a  crank,  has  a  range  up  to 
1,000  yards  or  more,  and  in  the  hands  of  a  cool  and 
competent  operator  is  one  of  the  most  deadly  weapons 
of  modern  warfare. 

In  a  test  before  a  naval  board  63,000  cartridges  wrere 
fired  without  stopping  to  wipe  out  the  barrels,  and  at  the 
end  of  the  test  the  gun  was  in  good  condition.  Having 
ten  barrels  and  firing  one  at  a  time  the  Catling  does  not 
heat  as  do  the  single  barrel  guns.  Its  bore  is  30-100  of 
an  inch,  bullet  weighs  220  grains,  has  a  muzzle  velocity 
of  2,000  feet,  and  can  penetrate  48  inches  of  pine.  A 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  397 

Catling  of  .236  caliber  using  a  smokeless  cartridge  has 
lately  been  perfected. 

The  Colt  automatic  is  a  new  machine  gun  recently 
become  familiar  to  us.  It  has  a  thick  barrel  and  does 
not  heat  as  rapidly  from  firing  and  so  has  no  water-jacket. 
All  that  is  necessary  is  to  keep  the  finger  pressed  on  the 
trigger  and  the  gun  aimed,  and  it  continues  to  fire  at  the 
rate  of  40x3  shots  per  minute  until  all  the  cartridges  are 
exhausted.  The  cartridges  are  carried  in  a  belt  and  fed 
into  the  gun  by  the  recoil,  each  recoil  of  the  barrel  eject- 
ing a  shell  and  jerking  a  cartridge  into  place.  The 
bullet  weighs  112  grains  of  .236  caliber,  moves  with  a 
muzzle  velocity  of  2,500  feet  a  second,  and  will  penetrate 
60  inches  of  pine  boards.  The  gun  alone  weighs  40 
pounds;  with  all  its  mountings  complete,  94  pounds. 

The  cut  herewith  gives  an  excellent  representation  of 
the  Maxim  automatic  gun.  It  is  operated  the  same  as 
the  Colt,  simply  by  pressing  the  trigger.  In  this  case  we 
see  the  barrel' enveloped  by  a  water-jacket  to  keep  cool 
the  parts  heated  by  the  friction  of  firing.  Maxim  has 
also  made  a  fully  automatic  9-pounder  gun  that  fires  60 
shots  in  a  minute. 

Projectiles. 

The  projectiles  used  for  breech-loading  guns  are  com- 
mon armor-firing  shell  and  shrapnel.  Common  shell  is 
hollow,  of  cast  or  drawn  steel,  containing  a  bursting 
charge  of  powder  exploded  by  a  fuse  either  on  impact  or 
at  the  end  of  a  certain  length  of  time  after  leaving  the 
gun.  In  length  a  shell  is  usually  3^  times  the  caliber. 
Common  shell  are  used  against  masonry,  earthworks  and 
unarmored  sides  of  vessels,  and  are  effective  by  reason 
of  the  explosion,  which  sets  fire  to  inflammable  material. 
In  common  shell  a  fuse  is  placed  either  in  the  nose  or  at 
the  base.  An  armor-piercing  shell  made  of  forged  steel 
with  an  especially  hardened  point  formerly  contained  a 


39$  THE    PASSING    OF    SPAIN    AND 

small  bursting  charge  ignited  by  heat  generated  by  the 
penetration  of  the  shell  through  the  armor.  Armor- 
piercing  shell  are  made  of  forged,  oil-tempered  steel, 
treated  by  special  processes,  and  containing  special  alloys 
to  allow  excessive  hardness  of  point  in  tempering.  Such 
shells  are  forged  solid,  turned  to  the  required  dimensions, 
bored  out  for  the  bursting  charge,  tempered  and  har- 
dened. The  base  is  closed  by  screwing  into  it  a  heavy 
steel  plug.  The  point  of  the  armor-piercing  shell  is  cov- 
ered with  a  lubricant,  and  over  this  is  placed  a  cap  of 
soft  steel.  The  cap  dishes  the  hard  face  of  the  armor 
to  its  elastic  limit,  and  the  projectile  then  passes  through 
the  cap,  aided  by  the  lubricant,  and  attacks  the  plate 
when  it  has  left  only  the  local  resistance.  Shrapnel 
shell  is  made  of  cast  iron  or  of  steel  with  much  thinner 
walls,  and  is  filled  with  small  leaden  balls  packed  in  sul- 
phur, with  a  small  bursting  charge  of  powder.  Shrapnel 
is  used  against  boats  and  exposed  bodies  of  men.  It  is 
intended  to  explode  before  reaching  the  target,  and  the 
bursting  charge  placed  in  the  base  of  the  shell  scatters 
the  balls  and  drives  them  forward.  The  sulphur  merely 
holds  the  balls  in  place.  The  compression  band  is  a 
strip  of  soft  copper  fitted  around  the  projectile  near  its 
base.  The  explosion  of  the  charge  forces  the  projectile 
past  the  compression  slope,  the  copper  is  squeezed  into 
the  rifling  grooves,  prevents  the  escape  of  the  gas  and 
gives  the  whirling  motion  to  the  projectile,  probably  about 
72  revolutions  a  second. 

Smokeless  Powder. 

Black  powder  when  exploded  leaves  50^  of  solid  resi- 
due, which  appears  in  the  form  of  smoke.  A  smokeless 
powder  is  one  that  on  explosion  generates  nothing  but 
gaseous  matter.  The  volume  of  gas  evolved  from  the 
same  weight  is  much  greater  in  smokeless  powder  than 
in  black  or  brown  powder,  and  the  force  exerted  on  the 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  399 

projectile  is  greater.  Smokeless  powder  is  usually  made 
from  gun  cotton,  nitro-glycerine,  or  some  of  its  com- 
pounds. In  appearance  it  is  hard,  lighter  than  the  ordi- 
nary powder,  pale  yellow  in  color,  and  usually  put  up  in 
the  form  of  sticks  about  |  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  having 
a  hole  through  the  center.  It  also  appears  in  flat  strips. 
The  English  kind  is  called  "  cordite." 

Small  Arms. 

The  rifle  used  by  the  navy  is  the  Lee-Metford,  calibre 
.236;  weight  of  bullet,  112  grains;  powder,  33  grains; 
giving  the  bullet  a  muzzle  velocity  of  2,600  feet  a  second, 
and  an  extreme  range  of  two  miles.  Up  to  300  yards 
the  Lee  has  greater  penetration  and  a  flatter  trajectory 
than  either  the  Krag  or  the  Springfield.  Used  as  a 
magazine  gun  it  gives  a  greater  rapidity  of  fire  than 
either  of  the  others.  The  bullet  has  a  hard  lead  core 
covered  with  a  copper  jacket.  The  Krag-Jorgensen  was 
invented  by  Col.  Krag,  chief  of  ordnance  of  Norway. 
The  United  States  pays  him  a  royalty  of  $1.00  on  each 
gun.  This  is  a  magazine  gun  of  .30  calibre  ;  weight  of 
bullet,  220  grains;  powder,  40  grains;  extreme  range, 
4,000  yards  ;  muzzle  velocity  ;  2,000  feet.  The  bullet  is 
a  steel  shell,  filled  with  lead  to  give  it  weight.  Beyond 
1,000  yards  it  is  a  more  accurate  gun  than  either  the 
Springfield  or  the  Lee.  The  Lee  and  the  Krag  gun 
each  fire  five  shots  and  use  smokeless  powder.  The 
Springfield  is  a  single  shot  breach-loading  gun,  using 
black  powder ;  calibre,  .45  ;  extreme  range,  3,500  yards ; 
velocity;  1,300  feet;  with  a  leaden  bullet.  The  wounds 
made  by  the  small  calibre  guns  at  short  range  are  fright- 
ful. As  the  bullet  loses  its  velocity  the  wound  becomes 
a  small,  clean  puncture. 


400 


THE    PASSING    OF    SPAIN    AM) 


NAVAL   GUN. 


Caliber,  o.303-inch;  700  shots  per  minute  can  be  fired;  500  rounds  of  ammunition  weigh  but 
pounds.    This  cut  shows  the  belt  carrying  the  cartridges  and  the  tip  of  the 
muzzle  of  the  gun  surrounded  by  the  "  water  jacket." 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  4<DI 

CHAPTER  XII. 
The  Army  and  its  Leaders. 

The  report  of  the  Secretary  of  War  for  the  year  end- 
ing June  30,  1897,  shows  the  strength  of  the  regular  army 
of  the  United  States  at  that  time  to  have  been  27,532 
officers  and  men.  It  has  never  been  the  policy  of  the 
United  States  to  maintain  a  large  standing  army,  as  do 
many  of  the  nations  of  Europe.  On  a  peace  footing 
Germany's  standing  army  numbers  585,440,  Russia's 
863,672,  France's  644,564,  Italy's  231,355,  Austria-Hun- 
gary's 358,697,  Turkey's  700,620,  Spain's  128,183, 
Japan's  284,741,  and  Great  Britain's  222,870.  While  it 
is  not  considered  necessary  that  the  regular  army  of  the 
United  States  should  be  increased  to  anything  like  these 
figures,  the  present  war  and  its  evident  results  make  it 
manifest  that  the  size  of  our  regular  army,  which  has 
heretofore  been  too  small,  will  hereafter  be  entirely 
inadequate,  and  that  the  time  has  been  reached  in  our 
national  growth  when  the  army  should  be  definitely 
increased  to  a  size  proportionate  with  our  vast  population 
and  increased  responsibilities.  Since  the  last  report  of 
the  Secretary  of  War  there  have  been  added  to  the  ser- 
vice two  regiments  of  artillery,  so  that  the  army  as  now 
organized  consists  of  ten  regiments  of  cavalry,  seven 
regiments  of  artillery,  twenty-five  regiments  of  infantry, 
an  engineering  battalion,  and  a  signal  corps,  so  that  the 
army  as  now  organized  contains  over  29,000  officers  and 
men  on  a  peace  footing. 

On  account  of  the  present  war  the  regular  army  has 
been  organized  on  a  war  footing  in  conformity  with  a 
bill  passed  by  Congress  April  23, 1898,  and  with  all  arms 
of  the  service  recruited  up  to  their  full  strength  in  con- 
formity with  the  provisions  of  this  bill  the  twenty-five 
infantry  regiments  contain  32,885,  the  artillery  16,886, 
cavalry  12,447  officers  and  men,  and  with  the  increase  in 
26 


4O2  THE    PASSING    OF    SPAIN    AND 

the  engineering  and  signal  corps  the  grand  total  of  offi- 
cers and  men  on  the  present  war  footing  is  64,985.  At 
the  end  of  the  war  the  army  will  be  reduced  to  a  peace 
basis  by  transfer  in  the  same  arm  of  the  service,  absorp- 
tion, promotion  or  honorable  discharge,  under  such  regu- 
lations as  the  Secretary  of  war  may  establish.  There  will 
result  no  permanent  increase  of  the  regular  army  beyond 
that  provided  by  the  law  in  force  prior  to  the  present 
war,  except  an  increase  of  twenty-five  majors  in  the 
infantry  arm. 

Beside  the  regular  army  we  rely  for  protection  upon 
the  National  Guard  and  the  volunteers.  The  National 
Guard  is  composed  exclusively  of  state  troops  under  the 
command  of  the  governors  of  the  respective  States,  and 
is  largely  the  result  of  the  policy  of  this  country  of  main- 
taining a  small  standing  army.  The  latest  reports 
received  at  the  office  of  the  Adjutant-General,  show  the 
total  number  in  the  National  Guard  of  the  various  States 
and  Territories  to  have  been  115,627  in  1896,  and  the 
number  now  is  somewhat  greater.  Congress  makes  an 
appropriation  each  year  for  the  support  of  the  National 
Guard  in  the  various  States,  and  the  States  also  accord 
help  and  build  armories  in  order  that  the  troops  may  be 
well  drilled.  By  this  means  they  furnish  a  high  order  of 
volunteers  in  time  of  war. 

The  volunteers,  which  form  a  branch  of  the  service 
only  to  be  found  in  war,  are  such  as  offer  their  services 
upon  the  call  of  the  President.  In  the  recent  call  for 
volunteers  it  was  the  President's  wish  that  the  National 
Guard  or  State  militia  should  be  used  as  far  as  their  num- 
ber would  permit,  because  they  were  organized,  equipped 
and  drilled.  The  National  Guard  responded  promptly, 
and  most  of  the  regiments  were  mustered  into  the  ser- 
vice. On  April  230!  the  President  issued  a  proclamation 
calling  for  125,000  volunteers.  After  the  battle  of  Man- 
illa and  the  bombardment  of  San  Juan  de  Porto  Rico,  a 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  403 

second  call  was  made  by  the  President  for  75,000  addi- 
tional volunteers.  The  officers  of  the  National  Guard, 
below  the  rank  of  Brigadier-General,  were  in  nearly 
every  case  retained.  The  higher  officers  were  appointed 
by  the  President  and  were  taken  from  West  Point  gradu- 
ates, the  State  militia,  or  civil  life.  Some  of  the  regi- 
ments of  volunteers  were  of  a  special  character,  such  as 
Roosevelt's  "  Rough  Riders"  and  the  "  Astor  Battery." 

The  following  are  the  sub-divisions  of  the  army  on  a 
war  footing  as  provided  by  the  new  army  bill  passed 
April  23,  1898: 

A  company  is  an  infantry  organization  consisting  of 
1 06  enlisted  men,  one  second  lieutenant,  one  first  lieu- 
tenant and  commanded  by  a  captain.  A  troop  is  the  cor- 
responding cavalry  organization  and  consists  of  100  en- 
listed men,  one  second  lieutenant,  one  first  lieutenant 
and  a  captain.  A  battery  is  the  corresponding  artillery 
organization  and  consists  of  173  enlisted  men  in  the 
light  artillery,  200  men  in  the  heavy  artillery,  one  sec- 
ond lieutenant,  one  first  lieutenant,  and  commanded  by 
a  captain.  The  President  is  empowered  to  add  an 
extra  second  lieutenant  to  each  battery  of  artillery. 

A  battalion  consists  of  four  companies,  troops  or  bat- 
teries and  is  commanded  by  a  major. 

A  regiment,  which  is  the  administrative  unit,  is  com- 
posed of  twelve  companies,  troops,  or  batteries,  one  lieu- 
tenant-colonel, and  is  commanded  by  a  colonel. 

A  brigade  consists  of  three  or  more  regiments  com- 
manded by  a  brigadier-general  and  sometimes  by  a 
colonel. 

A  division  consists  of  three  brigades,  and  there  may 
be  an  independent  brigade  of  cavalry  or  artillery,  and  is 
commanded  by  a  major-general  or  a  brigadier-general. 

A  corps  is  the  largest  tactical  unit  of  a  large  army, 
fully  organized  with  separate  staff,  infantry,  cavalry,  and 
artillery  regiments,  as  well  as  auxiliary  services,  so  that 


404  THE    PASSING    OF    SPAIN    AND 

it  is  really  a  small  army  complete  in  itself  and  is  usually 
composed  of  three  divisions.  It  is  commanded  by  a 
major-general. 

An  army  is  divided  into  two  or  more  corps  and  is 
commanded  by  a  major-general. 

Logically  the  army  should  be  commanded  by  a  general, 
each  corps  by  a  lieutenant-general,  a  division  by  a  major- 
general,  and  each  brigade  by  a  brigadier-general.  This 
would  necessitate,  however,  a  large  increase  in  the  salary 
of  officers,  and  the  Congress  of  the  United  States  has 
not  seen  fit  to  put  it  into  operation. 

The  commander-in-chief  of  the  army  is,  of  course,  ex 
officio,  the  President  of  the  United  States.  The  Secre- 
tary of  War  is  the  Hon.  Russell  A.  Alger,  and  the  Assist- 
ant Secretary  of  War  the  Hon.  George  D.  Meiklejohn. 
The  following  are  the  departmental  officers  with  the  rank 
of  brigadier-general :  Adjutant-General,  Samuel  Breck; 
Inspector-General,  Jos.  J.  Breckenridge ;  Quartermaster- 
General,  G.  H.  Weeks ;  Commissary-General,  Wm.  H. 
Bell;  Surgeon-General,  Geo.  M.  Sternberg;  Paymaster- 
General,  Thaddeus  H.  Stanton  ;  Chief  of  Engineers,  John 
M.  Wilson;  Chief  of  Ordnance,  Daniel  W.  Flagler; 
Judge  Advocate  General,  G.  N.  Lieber;  Chief  Signal 
Officer,  A.  W.  Greeley;  and  with  the  rank  of  colonel, 
Chief  Record  and  Pension  Officer,  F.  C.  Ainsworth. 

The  pay  of  the  officers  in  active  service  is  as  follows : 
Lieutenant-General,  $11,000;  major-general,  $7,500; 
brigadier-general,  $5,500;  colonel,  $3,500;  lieutenant- 
colonel,  $3,000;  major,  $2,500;  captain  (mounted), 
$2,000;  captain  (on  foot),  $1,800;  regimental  adjutant, 
$1,800;  regimental-quartermaster,  $1,800;  first  lieutenant 
(mounted),  $1,600;  first  lieutenant  (on  foot),  $1,500; 
second  lieutenant  (mounted),  $1.500;  second  lieutenant 
(on  foot),  $1,400.  These  amounts  are  increased  ten  per 
cent,  after  five  years'  service,  twenty  per  cent,  after  ten 
years'  service,  thirty  per  cent,  after  fifteen  years'  service, 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  405 

and  forty  per  cent,  after  twenty  years'  service ;  but  the 
maximum  pay  of  a  colonel  is  limited  to  $4,500  and  of  a 
lieutenant-colonel  to  $4,000.  The  pay  of  a  private  in 
any  arm  of  the  service  is  $  1 3  per  month  for  the  first  and 
second  years,  $14  for  the  third  year,  $15  for  the  fourth 
year,  $16  for  the  fifth  year.  After  five  years'  continuous 
service  he  receives  $2  per  month  extra.  During  this  war 
twenty  per  cent,  is  added  to  the  pay  of  all  enlisted  men, 
but  not  to  that  of  the  officers. 

Military  Schools. 

The  United  States  has  but  one  military  academy, 
which  is  located  at  West  Point,  N.  Y.,  and  military 
instruction  under  the  direction  of  lieutenants  of  the  regu- 
lar army,  detached  for  that  service,  is  given  in  about  one 
hundred  colleges  throughout  the  United  States.  The 
West  Point  cadets  come  from  the  various  States  and  Ter- 
ritories of  the  Union,  each  Congressional  district  and 
Territory  being  entitled  to  one  cadet  in  the  academy,  the 
nomination  being  made  t  /  the  representative.  This 
nomination  is  usually  made  after  a  competitive  examina- 
tion, but  may  be  given  directly.  There  are  also  ten  other 
appointments  which  are  usually  conferred  upon  the  sons 
of  officers  of  the  army  and  navy  by  the  President  of  the 
United  States.  Therefore,  the  number  of  students  is 
limited  to  371.  Foreign  governments  may,  however, 
have  cadets  educated  at  the  academy  by  authorization  of 
Congress.  The  course  of  instruction  requires  four  years 
and  is  largely  mathematical  and  professional.  The 
appointees  must  be  between  the  ages  of  17  and  22  years, 
of  sound  health,  and  free  from  any  infirmity  which  may 
render  them  unfit  for  military  service.  The  discipline  is 
very  strict,  even  more  so  than  in  the  army.  During  his 
stay  at  West  Point,  each  cadet  receives  $540  per  year, 
and  after  graduation  he  is  commissioned  a  second  lieu- 
tenant in  the  United  States  army.  On  account  of  the 


406  THE    PASSING    OF    SPAIN. 

rigid  requirements  a  large  proportion  of  the  cadets  fall 
by  the  wayside  each  year.  The  number  in  attendance 
September  i,  1897,  was  338.  The  school  can  accommo- 
date a  much  larger  number,  and  it  has  been  proposed  to 
add  two  cadets  from  each  State,  one  to  be  appointed  by 
each  United  States  senator. 

The  number  of  students  who  received  military  instruc- 
tion at  the  100  colleges  throughout  the  country  was 
15,608  in  1896. 

Nelson  A.  Miles, 

Major-General  in  command  of  the  army,  was  born  at 
Westminster,  Mass.,  August  8,  1839.  His  ancestors  set- 
tled in  Massachusetts  colony  in  1643.  ^c  was  reared 
on  a  farm  and  in  early  manhood  engaged  in  mercantile 
pursuits  in  Boston.  Early  in  1861  he  raised  a  company 
of  volunteers  and  offered  his  services  to  his  country. 
He  was  given  the  commission  of  a  captain,  but  being  con- 
sidered too  young  for  the  Responsibilities  of  that  com- 
mand he  joined  the  Army  o.  the  Potomac  as  first  lieu- 
tenant in  the  2 2d  Massachusetts  volunteers.  In  1862  he 
was  commissioned  by  Gov.  Morgan  of  New  York  as 
lieutenant-colonel  and  colonel  of  the  6ist  New  York  vol- 
unteers. At  the  earnest  request  of  Gens.  Meade  and 
Grant  he  was  made  a  brigadier-general  of  volunteers  by 
President  Lincoln.  He  was  perhaps  engaged  in  more 
hard-fought  battles  than  any  general  officer  of  our  army, 
including  35  distinct  battles  and  over  100  serious  affairs 
in  which  artillery,  cavalry  and  infantry  were  engaged. 
He  commanded  regiments,  brigades  and  divisions,  and 
at  one  time,  February,  1865,  was  in  command  of  the 
second  army  corps,  which  numbered  at  that  time  over 
25,000  men,  and  which  is  believed  to  be  the  largest  com- 
mand ever  handled  by  an  officer  in  this  country  at  25 
years  of  age.  In  the  latter  part  of  the  war  his  command 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  407 

was  the  first  division,  second  army  corps,  the  largest  of 
all  the  divisions. 

General  Miles  was  wounded  at  the  battles  of  Fair 
Oaks,  Fredericksburg  and  Chancellorsville,  and  received 
four  brevets  for  gallantry  and  distinguished  service.  At 
the  close  of  the  war  he  commanded  the  district  of  North 
Carolina  during  the  work  of  reconstruction,  and  on  the 
reorganization  of  the  army  he  was  appointed  colonel  of 
infantry.  He  was  made  a  brigadier-general,  U.  S.  A.,  in 
1880  and  a  major-general  in  1890.  He  has  successfully 
conducted  Indian  campaigns  in  all  parts  of  our  great 
West,  and  has  on  several  occasions  prevented  Indian 
wars  by  judicious  and  humane  settlement  of  the  difficul- 
ties without  the  use  of  military  power. 

Major-General  John  R.  Brooke  was  born  in  Pennsyl- 
vania July  21,  1838,  and  was  a  farmer  boy  of  23  when  he 
responded  to  the  first  call  of  President  Lincoln  for  troops 
in  1 86 1.  He  participated  with  credit  in  nearly  all  of  the 
battles  of  the  Army  of  the  Potomac,  rising  from  captain 
to  brigadier-general  of  volunteers,  receiving  two  brevets 
for  distinguished  services.  Since  the  war  he  has  been 
on  duty  in  the  West,  in  command  of  the  department  of 
the  Platte  and  of  the  department  of  the  Missouri. 
"  When  he  fights  he  wins  "  is  the  reputation  he  has  ac- 
quired among  those  who  have  served  under  him. 

Major-General  Wm.  R.  Shafter  came  from  what  Lin- 
coln called  the  "plain  people."  He  entered  the  iyth 
Michigan  Infantry  as  first  lieutenant  in  1861  at  the  age 
of  25.  He  served  with  distinction  through  the  war  and 
was  twice  brevetted  for  gallant  and  meritorious  service. 
Since  the  war  he  has  served  with  distinction  in  the  In- 
dian campaigns  as  colonel  of  the  24th  Infantry,  and  as 
brigadier-general  in  command  of  the  department  of  the 
Pacific.  General  Shafter  weighs  over  300  pounds,  is 
gruff,  sturdy  and  warm-hearted.  He  has  been  criticised 
for  his  conduct  of  the  campaign  against  Santiago,  but 


4C>8  THE    PASSING   OF    SPAIN    AND 

his  best  reply  to  this  criticism  is  found  in  the  complete- 
ness of  his  victory.  He  has  won  such  honors  as  came  to 
Grant,  and  escaped  the  humiliations  of  less  energetic  and 
venturesome  leaders. 

Major-General  Wesley  Merritt\vz.s  born  in  New  York 
city  in  1836,  graduated  from  West  Point  in  1860,  and 
during  the  Civil  War  rapidly  rose  to  the  rank  of  major- 
general  of  volunteers.  He  received  six  brevets  for  gal- 
lant and  meritorious  service.  In  1866  he  was  appointed 
colonel  of  the  gth  Cavalry,  and  later  for  several  years 
managed  the  Military  Academy  at  West  Point.  Since 
then  he  has  worked  himself  up  from  grade  to  grade  in 
the  Indian  campaigns,  and  many  military  men,  espe- 
cially West  Pointers,  regard  him  as  the  greatest  genius  of 
the  army. 

Major-General  Joseph  Wlieeler  graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1859  and  entered  the  Confederate  army  at  the 
breaking  out  of  the  civil  war.  He  was  rapidly  promoted, 
serving  as  lieutenant  of  artillery,  colonel  of  infantry, 
brigadier-general,  major-general,  and  lieutenant-general 
of  cavalry.  In  1864  he  received  the  brevet  of  general  of 
the  Confederate  army.  After  the  war  he  became  a  law- 
yer and  planter  in  Alabama  and  for  the  past  dozen  years 
has  been  a  representative  in  Congress. 

As  a  cavalry  officer  Gen.  Wheeler  ranked  with  Sheri- 
dan. Audacious,  fearless,  aggressive,  energetic,  and  an 
excellent  strategist,  his  campaigns  throughout  the  civil  war 
were  marked  by  dash  and  valor.  He  captured  Gen. 
Prentiss'  division  at  Shiloh,  covered  the  retreat  from 
Shiloh  to  Corinth  and  Perrysville,  winning  the  highest 
commendation  from  Confederate  generals ;  turned  Rosen- 
crans'  flank  at  Murfreesboro  and  distinguished  himself  at 
Chickamauga,  Missionary  Ridge  and  in  the  struggle  from 
Chattanooga  to  Atlanta.  He  was  wounded  three  times 
and  had  sixteen  horses  shot  under  him.  An  indefatig- 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  409 

able  student  and  worker,  and  as  a  legislator  handles  pub- 
lic questions  in  a  masterly  way. 

Major-General  Fitzhugh  Lee  was  born  in  Virginia  in 
1835,  graduated  from  West  Point  in  1856,  and  was  re- 
turned there  as  instructor  of  cavalry  in  1860,  where  he 
continued  until  the  beginning  of  the  civil  war.  He 
entered  the  Confederate  army  as  first  lieutenant  of  cavalry 
and  rapidly  rose  to  major-general.  Was  severely  wounded 
at  Winchester  after  three  horses  had  been  shot  under 
him.  After  the  war  he  retired  to  his  farm  in  Stafford 
county,  Va.,  for  several  years,  and  was  elected  governor  of 
Virginia  in  1885  for  a  term  of  four  years.  In  1896  he 
was  appointed  by  President  Cleveland  to  be  consul-gen- 
eral at  Havana,  where  he  remained  until  the  breaking 
out  of  the  present  war. 

Major- General  James  H.  Wilson  graduated  from  West 
Point  in  1860,  just  in  time  to  win  his  major-general's 
double  star  within  three  years  of  his  graduation.  He 
was  one  of  the  greatest  cavalry  leaders  produced  by  the 
Union  side  during  the  Civil  War.  He  is  most  famous 
for  his  dashing  cavalry  raid  into  Alabama  and  Louisiana 
in  1865.  The  consummate  skill  and  brilliant  success 
with  which  he  handled  12,000  troopers  in  this  campaign 
proved  the  wisdom  of  General  Grant  in  selecting  him  for 
this  important  command.  At  this  time  General  Wilson 
was  about  twenty-seven  years  of  age,  and  the  men  who 
swung  into  their  saddles  at  the  sound  of  his  bugle  to  fol- 
low his  battle-flag  were  mostly  youngsters  from  twenty  to 
twenty-five  years  of  age,  though  all  seasoned  veterans  of 
three  or  more  years'  service.  General  Wilson  retired 
from  the  army  in  December,  1870,  and  has  since  been 
engaged  successfully  in  railroad  management  in  the 
United  States  and  China. 

Colonel  Theodore  Roosevelt  was  born  in  New  York  City, 
October  27,  1858,  his  father's  people  having  lived  in  that 
city  for  eight  generations.  He  is  quick,  intense,  nervous, 


4IO  THE    PASSING    OF    SPAIN    AND 

incessant,  and  an  actor  in,  not  a  spectator  of,  the  drama 
of  the  times.  Sickly  as  a  boy,  his  first  active  work  was 
in  making  himself  a  physically  able  fellow.  He  gradu- 
ated from  Harvard  in  iSSo.  He  believes  "  that  in  a  free 
republic  like  ours,  it  is  a  man's  duty  to  know  how  to  bear 
arms  and  to  be  willing  to  do  so  when  the  occasion  arises," 
and  he  evidenced  his  belief  by  joining  the  Eighth  Regi- 
ment of  the  New  York  State  Nat'l  Guard  in  1884,  ris- 
ing to  be  captain  of  one  of  its  companies.  In  1884  he 
started  his  cattle  ranch  in  the  Bad  Lands  of  Dakota, 
where  he  spent  several  summers.  In  the  New  York 
State  Convention  of  1884  he  first  became  conspicuous 
and  was  sent  to  the  National  Convention  at  Chicago. 
He  was  sent  to  the  New  York  Legislature  for  three  suc- 
cessive terms  in  1883,  1884  and  1885.  After  General 
Harrison's  election  as  President,  he  appointed  Roosevelt 
as  Civil  Service  Commissioner,  and  that  post  he  held  un- 
til he  became  a  police  commissioner  in  1895.  From  this 
position  he  was  appointed  Assistant  Secretary  of  the 
Navy  under  the  present  Administration,  and  at  the  break- 
ing out  of  the  present  war  resigned  to  go  to  the  front  as 
lieutenant-colonel  of  Roosevelt's  "  Rough  Riders." 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  411 

CHAPTER    XIII. 
The  Future  of  America. 

It  will  help  us  to  form  an  intelligent  estimate  of  the 
possibilities  before  us  and  the  probable  future  of  our 
nation  if  we  will  briefly  consider  its  early  difficulties  and 
the  progess  it  has  made.  For  generations  the  United 
States  has  held  steadfastly  to  the  policy  outlined  by 
Washington  in  his  farewell  address : 

"  If  we  remain  one  people,  under  an  efficient  government,  the  period  is  not 
far  off  when  we  may  defy  material  injury  from  external  annoyance.  *  *  * 
Why  forego  the  advantages  of  so  peculiar  a  situation  ?  Why  quit  our  own 
to  stand  on  foreign  ground?  Why,  by  interweaving  our  destiny  with  that  of 
any  part  of  Europe,  entangle  our  peace  and  prosperity  in  the  toils  of  Euro- 
pean ambition,  rivalship,  interest,  humor,  or  caprice?  It  is  our  true  policy 
to  steer  clear  of  permanent  alliances  with  any  portion  of  the  foreign  world, 
so  far,  I  mean,  as  we  are  now  at  liberty  to  do  it;  for  let  me  not  be  under- 
stood as  capable  of  patronizing  infidelity  to  existing  engagements." 

We  can  better  understand  what  called  forth  these  wise 
utterances  if  we  know  something  of  the  condition  of  the 
country  at  that  time.  The  United  States  were  practically 
but  a  small  fringe  of  settlements  on  the  Atlantic  sea- 
board ;  to  be  driven  from  the  coast  was  to  endure  all  the 
privations  of  the  forest,  and  that  coast  was  at  the  mercy 
of  any  of  the  naval  powers  of  the  day.  Their  north- 
western and  southern  boundaries  were  vague  and  in- 
definite ;  of  them  they  knew  little  and  cared  less.  Their 
western  boundary  was  the  Mississippi  river,  and  this  was 
supposed  to  rise  somewhere  in  British  America.  Their 
census  had  shown  that  there  were  3,929,241  inhabitants, 
rather  more  than  half  as  many  as  are  now  found  within 
the  single  State  of  New  York,  and  of  these  one-fifth  were 
in  Virginia,  one-ninth  in  Pennsylvania,  and  almost  one- 
half  south  of  the  southern  boundary  of  that  State.  The 
six  largest  cities  of  the  country  together  numbered  fewer 
inhabitants  than  Kansas  City,  Mo.,  can  now  boast.  The 
total  area  of  the  United  States  was  then  865,000  square 
miles  and  three-fourths  of  it  was  inhabited  only  by  sav- 


412  THE    PASSING    OF    STAIN    AND 

ages.  England  held  fortified  posts  in  our  territory  on 
the  plea  that  the  United  States,  in  violation  of  treaty, 
had  not  repealed  laws  forbidding  the  recovery  of  debts 
due  from  their  citizens  to  her  subjects  Spain  would 
make  no  treaty  allowing  free  navigation  of  the  Missis- 
sippi; domestic  affairs  were  unhappy;  the  United  States 
were  allied  by  treaty  to  France ;  France  declared  war 
against  Great  Britian ;  Washington  issued  a  proclama- 
tion of  neutrality  and  his  opponents  at  once  cried 
"  coward ; "  claimed  that  he  had  violated  the  Constitu- 
tion ;  had  usurped  the  power  of  Congress,  because  to  pro- 
claim neutrality  was  to  forbid  war  ;  to  forbid  war  implied 
the  right  to  declare  war,  and  Congress  alone  could  do 
that.  The  Constitution  was  not  working  smoothly.  A 
"Whiskey  Insurrection"  occurred  in  Pennsylvania; 
demagogues  demanded  that  all  property  should  be  di- 
vided and  held  in  common  —  since  all  had  been  engaged 
in  defending  it  from  English  confiscation  all  were  equally 
entitled  to  share  in  it.  This  motive  was  at  the  bottom 
of  Shays'  rebellion.  If  successful  it  would  have  annihi- 
lated all  property  and  canceled  all  debts.  The  most 
bitter  partisan  feeling  prevailed.  The  Secretary  of  State 
privately  employed  a  scurrilous  writer  to  attack  the 
President  in  whose  cabinet  he  served.  This  was  the 
situation  when  Washington  warned  his  fellow-country- 
men to  "  beware  of  entangling  alliances."  There  was, 
therefore,  a  real  danger  that  a  defeated  faction  might 
seek  to  avenge  itself  by  calling  in  a  stronger  power.  The 
recent  magnificent  exhibition  of  the  united  nation,  of  its 
unselfishness,  its  enormous  resources  and  great  area, 
make  it  difficult  for  us  to  look  back  and  appreciate  our 
former  feebleness  and  comparative  insignificance. 

Territory  Acquired. 

Napoleon  had   obtained   Louisana    from    Spain,    but 
could  not  hold  it  against  attack  from  Great  Britain,  and 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  413 

in  1803  Jefferson  bought  for  60,000,000  francs  the  terri- 
tory from  which  we  have  since  carved  sixteen  States,  the 
United  States  agreeing  to  pay  its  own  citizens  spoliation 
claims  due  them  from  France.  The  control  of  the  Missis- 
sippi and  the  development  of  the  West  were  now  assured, 
yet  that  magnificent  domain  was  not  secured  without  vio- 
lent partisan  opposition,  and  only  Hamilton  of  all  the 
Federal  leaders  could  show  the  "  high  mind "  and  play 
the  statesman.  Jefferson,  in  the  immortal  Declaration  of 
Independence,  had  said,  "  Governments  are  instituted 
among  men  deriving  their  just  powers  from  the  consent 
of  the  governed,"  yet  he  purchased  a  foreign  colony  with- 
out reference  to  its  inhabitants,  and  not  only  without 
their  consent  but  against  their  will.  In  1819  Spain 
ceded  the  Floridas  to  us,  the  United  States  agreeing  to 
pay  its  own  citizens'  claims  for  outrages  sustained  at  the 
hands  of  Spain  and  to  accept  the  Colorado  river  in  Texas 
as  a  boundary  in  place  of  the  Rio  Grande.  In  1845 
Texas  was  annexed,  which  involved  us  in  war  with 
Mexico.  This  action  was  so  far  from  meeting  with  unani- 
mous approval,  that  an  Ohio  senator  said  he  hoped  the 
Mexicans  would  welcome  our  troops  "  with  bloody  hands 
to  unhospitable  graves."  Nevertheless  a  half  a  million 
square  miles  were  added  to  the  public  domain,  and  in  1853 
the  Gadsen  purchase  secured  for  $10,000,000  additional 
territory  in  the  southern  part  of  New  Mexico,  Arizona, 
and  California.  The  northwestern  boundaries  of  the 
Louisiana  purchase  were  never  accurately  defined,  and 
but  for  Marcus  Whitman's  heroic  ride  of  4,000  miles  in 
the  dead  of  winter  across  trackless  prairies  and  pathless 
forests  the  territory  that  comprises  Idaho,  Oregon,  and 
Washington  would  have  been  a  part  of  British  Columbia. 
In  this  case,  as  usual,  the  acquirement  of  territory  met 
with  great  opposition  from  the  conservative,  the  short- 
sighted, and  the  hysterical,  who  averred  that  it  was  worth- 
less, remote,  and  indefensible.  We  think  no  one  will 


414  THE    PASSING   OF    SPAIN    AND 

venture  to  say  that  time  has  not  justified  the  wisdom  of 
the  acquisition.  Then  in  1867  came  Se  ward's  purchase 
of  Alaska  for  $7,200,000.  Many  estimable  people  could 
not  see  the  wisdom  of  this,  but  the  territory  has  since 
more  than  paid  for  itself  in  fisheries,  furs  and  gold.  In 
1891  the  little  island  of  Navassa,  in  the  West  Indies,  was 
acquired,  and  July  7,  1898,  Hawaii  became  a  part  of  the 
United  States,  three-fourths  of  a  century  after  we  had 
announced  our  intention  of  adding  it  to  our  public 
domain;  and  at  the  next  meeting  of  Congress  there  will 
probably  be  added  to  our  dominions  the  territory  acquired 
in  our  war  with  Spain. 

Colonial  Extension. 

The  Phoenicians,  Greeks,  and  especially  the  Romans, 
brought  their  colonies  to  a  high  state  of  perfection,  and 
under  Rome  there  were  various  grades  of  citizenship  in 
her  colonies  —  from  the  lowest  up  to  the  highest  enjoyed 
by  a  citizen  of  the  republic.  Among  the  advantages  of 
a  colony  is  that  it  widens  fields  of  enterprise  and  pro- 
vides closed  markets,  in  which  the  mother  country  can 
buy  cheap  and  sell  dear.  It  gives  a  larger  choice  of  the 
means  of  livelihood.  It  appeals  to  the  agriculturist  be- 
cause it  offers  him  land.  It  furnishes  a  safety-valve  for 
the  outlet  of  the  discontented  population,  and  every  new 
colony  may  be  looked  upon  as  a  new  market  for  home 
goods ;  a  speculation  that  may  be  worth  some  expense 
to  maintain.  A  glance  at  the  map  of  the  world  shows 
how  extensive  this  system  has  become.  The  colonies 
and  dependencies  of  Great  Britain  cover  one-sixth  the 
whole  surface  of  the  globe,  and  embrace  about  the  same 
proportion  of  its  population.  Germany,  beginning  the 
policy  in  1884,  has  acquired  over  one  million  square 
miles  and  ten  millions  of  population.  France  to-day  has 
in  dependencies  a  territory  greater  than  the  United 
States  with  a  population  of  over  fifty  million  souls,  and 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  415 

the  greater  part  of  this  has  been  secured  since  1880. 
The  Netherlands,  with  a  home  population  less  than  that 
of  Pennsylvania  and  an  area  slightly  greater  than  that 
of  Maryland,  hold  dependencies  in  the  East  Indies 
and  West  Indies  aggregating  783,000  square  miles, 
with  a  population  of  over  35,000,000.  Evidently 
that  little  country  is  not  alarmed  about  its  need- 
ing a  powerful  navy  to  defend  the  distant  domain. 
The  idea  of  a  colony  frightens  the  average  Ameri- 
can, and  yet  under  the  name  of  "  territory "  the 
United  States  has  practiced  an  extensive  plan  of  coloni- 
zation. She  has  given  land  outright  to  actual  settlers 
and  has  sold  it  to  others  on  the  most  favorable  terms. 
She  has  governed  the  territories  by  her  own  laws  until 
such  time  as  she  saw  fit  to  grant  them  the  rights  of  state- 
hood. If  the  policy  of  colonization  is  a  judicious  one, 
there  is  little  doubt  about  its  constitutionality,  for  the 
United  States  Supreme  Court  has  decided  that  Congress 
has  absolute  power  when  it  comes  to  law-making  for  the 
territory.  "  It  is,  perhaps,  natural  for  the  mother  country 
to  regard  the  colony  as  an  outlet  for  her  own  surplus 
population,  and  the  tie  between  them  is  manifest  in  the 
case  of  commerce.  Great  Britain  has  maintained  her 
trade  more  steadily  in  her  own  colonies  than  she  has 
with  all  the  rest  of  the  world." 

"  Judging-  the  Future  by  the  Past." 

McMasters,  in  his  "Four  Centuries  of  Progress,"  says: 

"We  have  reached  the  Gulf,  we  have  crossed  the  Mississippi,  we  have 
built  up  two-and-twenty  Commonwealths  on  the  plains  beyond,  we  have 
made  our  Constitution  sure  and  given  Europe  such  an  object  lesson  in 
'government  of  the  people,  by  the  people,  for  the  people,'  as  will  not  be  in 
vain.  Whatever  abridges  distance,  whatever  annihilates  time,  whatever 
alleviates  human  pain,  has  nowhere  been  so  fostered  as  in  these  United 
States.  Could  we  but  stretch  forth  our  hands  and  take  out  of  the  life  of  the 
world  to-day  every  machine,  every  article  of  real  necessity,  every  convenience, 
every  comfort  due  to  the  ingenuity  of  our  countrymen,  we  should  bring  back 
a  condition  of  affairs  which  to  u^  would  be  almost  intolerable. 

"As  we  have  grown  more  intelligent,  so  we  have  grown  more  liberal,  more 
tolerant,  more  humane.  When  this  century  opened  there  was  not  a  blind 


416  THE    PASSING   OF    SPAIN    AND 

asylum,  nor  a  deaf-and-dumb  asylum,  nor  a  lunatic  asylum,  nor  a  house  of 
refuge  in  all  our  land.  We  have  cut  down  the  number  of  crimes  punished 
with  death  from  fifteen  to  two.  We  have  ceased  to  use  the  branding  iron 
and  the  treadmill;  we  have  abolished  imprisonment  for  debt;  we  have  exter- 
minated slavery.  We  have  covered  our  country  with  free  schools  and  free 
libraries,  and  set  up  institutions  for  the  protection  not  only  of  children  but 
of  dumb  brutes.  In  the  face  of  all  these  facts  it  is  wicked  to  talk  of  degen- 
eration and  decay." 

It  is  a  century  since  Washington  uttered  his  words  of 
warning.  In  that  time  the  public  domain  of  the  country 
has  been  more  than  quadrupled ;  the  population  has 
increased  from  less  than  four  millions  to  more  than 
seventy  millions;  its  wealth  and  resources  can  hardly  be 
computed.  Instead  of  a  feeble,  struggling  nation,  at 
the  mercy  of  any  power,  we  are  so  strong  that  an  Austrian 
Minister  of  State  has  openly  threatened  a  coalition  of 
Europe  against  us  lest  our  free  institutions  become  too 
dangerous  to  their  systems  of  government.  Have  we 
become  a  "world  power?"  Docs  our  action  in  the 
Venezuelan  matter  and  the  intervention  in  Cuban  affairs 
answer  the  question? 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  417 

CHAPTER  XIV. 

The  Spanish-American  War. 
A  Century  of  American  Forbearance. 

During  our  Revolutionary  war,  Spain,  France  and  the 
United  States  were  allies,  and  the  treaty  of  peace  signed 
in  1783  was  between  England  on  the  one  side  and  the 
allies  on  the  other.  Hardly  was  the  ink  on  the  treaty 
dry  before  Spain  made  extravagant  claims  concerning  the 
boundaries  of  Florida,  and  even  denied  our  right  to  ter- 
ritory between  the  Allegheny  mountains  and  the  Missis- 
sippi river.  In  1795  Spain  claimed  that  the  land  between 
the  Allegheny  and  the  Mississippi  belonged  to  the  In- 
dians, and  that  she  had  purchased  Chickasaw  Bluffs  of 
them.  She  denied  our  right  to  free  navigation  of  the 
Mississippi,  stopped  goods  in  transit,  levied  exorbitant 
duties,  sometimes  50$  to  75%  ad  valorem.  She  intrigued 
with  influential  settlers  of  Kentucky  and  Tennessee  until 
it  seemed  uncertain  whether  the  settlers  would  become 
allies  of  Spain,  set  up  an  independent  government  or  in- 
volve the  United  States  in  war.  Numerous  outrages, 
violations  of  treaty  rights  and  indignities  were  practiced, 
and  her  territory  was  a  harbor  for  the  runaway  slave,  the 
escaped  criminal  and  the  bandit,  Spain  pleaded  that  she 
could  not  preserve  order  within  her  own  territory. 

Not  to  mention  the  cases  of  -the  "  Black  Warrior  "  and 
"Virginius,"  which  we  have  touched  upon,  there  were 
more  than  half  a  dozen  American  ships  fired  upon,  over- 
hauled and  captured  near  Cuba  from  1877  to  1880.  The 
"Allianca"  and  "Competitor"  cases  are  fresh  in  our 
minds.  In  1877  the  "  Masonic,"  an  American  ship  bound 
for  Japan,  was  forced  by  stress  of  weather  to  put  into 
Manila,  where  the  cargo  had  to  be  taken  out  that  repairs 
might  be  made.  Spanish  officers  claimed  the  manifest 
was  not  correct  and  not  only  violated  the  treaty,  but 
every  rule  of  hospitality,  by  confiscating  the  ship  and 
27 


41 8  THE    PASSING   OF   SPAIN    AND 

cargo.  The  case  was  arbitrated,  and  Italy  awarded  us 
$56,000  damages  about  six  years  after  the  offense  was 
committed.  The  Cuban  estates  of  naturalized  Ameri- 
cans have  frequently  been  confiscated ;  Americans  have 
mysteriously  died  in  prison  without  being  brought  to 
trial  for  any  alleged  offense;  our  treaty  rights  have  been 
flagrantly  violated,  and  Spain's  conduct  has  been  aggra- 
vating in  the  extreme. 

Although  there  have  been  times  in  our  history  when 
the  Americans  seemed  determined  to  possess  Cuba,  there 
have  been  other  times  when  our  support  has  saved  it  for 
Spain.  Jefferson,  in  1795,  said,  "We  had  with  sincere 
and  particular  disposition  courted  and  cultivated  the 
friendship  of  Spain;"  and  in  1823,  when  France  showed 
a  disposition  to  acquire  the  island,  Clay,  as  Secretary  of 
State,  said,  "  The  United  States  for  themselves  desire  no 
change  in  the  political  condition  of  Cuba."  Van  Buren, 
in  1840,  probably  saved  the  island  from  England  for 
Spain  when  he  said,  "  In  case-  of  any  attempt  from  what-, 
ever  quarter  to  wrest  from  her  this  portion  of  her  terri- 
tory, she  may  securely  depend  upon  the  military  and 
naval  resources  of  the  United  States  to  aid  in  preserving 
or  recovering  it."  Professor  Hart,  in  Harper's  for  June, 
1898,  says: 

"  So  far  from  the  Cuban  policy  of  the  United  States  having  been  one  of 
aggression,  few  nations  have  shown  more  good  temper  toward  a  troublesome 
neighbor,  more  patience  with  diplomatic  delays  or  more  self-restraint  over  a 
coveted  possession.  The  Cuban  controversy  has  not  been  sought  by  the 
United  States.  It  arises  out  of  the  geographical  and  political  conditions  of 
America." 

President  McKinley's  message  of  April  u,  1898, gives 
a  masterly  review  of  Cuban  affairs,  and  possessing,  as  he 
did,  information  not  accessible  to  the  public,  nothing  can 
better  outline  the  situation  for  us. 

The  Present  Revolution.  —  "  The  present  revolution  is  but  the  successor  of 
other  similar  insurrections  which  have  occurred  in  Cuba  against  the  dominion 
of  Spain,  extending  over  a  period  of  nearly  half  a  century,  each  of  which, 
during  its  progress,  has  subjected  the  United  States  to  great  effort  and 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  419 

expense  in  enforcing  its  neutrality  laws,  caused  enormous  losses  to  American 
trade  and  commerce,  caused  irritation,  annoyance  and  disturbance  among 
our  citizens,  and,  by  the  exercise  of  cruel,  barbarous  and  uncivilized  prac- 
tices of  warfare,  shocked  the  sensibilities  and  offended  the  human  sympathies 
of  our  people." 

Weyler's  Policy  of  Reeoneentration. 

"The  agricultural  population,  to  the  estimated  number  of  300,000  or  more, 
was  herded  within  the  towns  and  their  immediate  vicinage,  deprived  of  the 
means  of  support,  rendered  destitute  of  shelter,  left  poorly  clad  and  exposed 
to  the  most  unsanitary  conditions.  As  the  scarcity  of  food  increased  with 
the  devastation  of  the  depopulated  areas  of  production,  destitution  and  want 
beca4ne  misery  and  starvation.  Month  by  month  the  death  rate  increased  in 
an  alarming  ratio.  N'O  practical  relief  was  afforded  to  the  destitute.  The 
overburdened  towns,  already  sufferipg  from  general  dearth,  could  give  no 
aid.  By  March,  1897,  according  to  conservative  estimates  from  official 
Spanish  sources,  the  mortality  among  the  reconcentrados,  from  starvation 
and  the  diseases  thereto  incident,  exceeded  50  per  cent,  of  their  total  number." 

The  horrible  condition  of  affairs  and  the  increasing 
destitution  having  been  brought  home  to  the  minds  of 
the  American  people  by  the  speech  of  Senator  Proctor, 
who  had  visited  Cuba,  the  public  conscience  was  touched, 
and  in  response  to  an  appeal  from  the  President,  more 
than  $200,000  was  raised  by  voluntary  subscriptions  and 
sent  fb  Cuba  for  the  relief  of  the  reconcentrados,  and  the 
civilized  world  was  so  impressed  that  the  Spanish  govern- 
ment deemed  it  politic  to  authorize  the  appropriation  of 
$600,000  for  the  same  purpose,  and  ordered  the  American 
contribution  to  be  admitted  into  Cuba  free  of  duty. 

The  De  Lome  Incident. 

Early  in  February  Senor  De  Lome,  the  Spanish  min- 
ister at  Washington,  had  written  to  Senor  Canalejas, 
then  at  Havana  and  a  Spanish  official  of  high  rank,  a 
letter  concerning  the  situation,  certain  passages  of  which 
were  insulting  to  the  President  of  the  United  States. 
The  letter  made  plain  that  neither  De  Lome  nor  Cana- 
lejas believed  in  the  sincerity  of  the  "  autonomy  "  pro- 
posals, but  looked  upon  them  as  a  blind  for  diverting 
the  attention  of  the  United  States.  Some  Cuban  sym- 
pathizer seems  to  have  abstracted  the  letter  from  Canalejas 


42O  THE    PASSING    OF    SPAIN    AND 

and  turned  it  over  to  the  Cuban  Junta  in  New  York, 
who  published  it  in  full  in  the  New  York  Journal.  Upon 
its  appearance,  De  Lome  telegraphed  his  resignation  to 
M  ulrid,  which  was  immediately  accepted,  and  when  our 
minister,  General  Woodford,  presented  the  request  of  the 
United  States  for  De  Lome's  recall  he  was  informed 
that  De  Lome  was  no  longer  a  Spanish  official. 

Destruction  of  the  "Maine." 

President  Cleveland  was  exceedingly  careful  not  to 
wound  the  sensitive  feelings  of  Spain,  and  while  the 
Cuban  insurrection  was  in  progress  American  battleships 
did  not  visit  Cuban  ports,  neither  were  the  usual  South 
Atlantic  fleet  maneuvers  held.  After  the  granting  of 
so-called  autonomy  to  Cuba  and  the  appointment  of 
officers,  the  administration  saw  no  reason  why  the  gov- 
ernment ships  should  not  resume  their  friendly  naval 
visits  at  Cuban  ports,  especially  as  there  had  been  rioting 
in  Havana  and  it  was  thought  the  American  consulate 
and  the  interests  of  the  United  States  would  be  furthered 
by  the  presence  of  the  battleship,  and  in  accordance 
with  former  custom  the  "  Maine,"  a  second-class  battle- 
ship, visited  that  port,  reaching  there  about  1 1  o'clock 
January  25,  1898.  Everything  was  quiet;  no  demon- 
strations were  made  and  the  customary  formal  visits  be- 
tween the  officers  were  exchanged.  The  coming  of  the 
"  Maine  "  angered  the  Spanish  press  and  the  volunteers, 
though  outwardly  the  usual  courtesy  was  shown  by  the 
highest  officials.  Suddenly,  February  1 5th,  at  9:40  P.  M., 
without  the  slightest  warning,  a  terrific  explosion  oc- 
curred on  the  port  side  under  the  quarters  of  the  crew, 
and  "  258  brave  sailors  and  marines  and  two  officers  of  our 
navy,  reposing  in  the  fancied  security  of  a  friendly  harbor, 
were  hurled  to  death,  grief  and  want  brought  to  their 
homes,  and  sorrow  to  the  nation." 

Captain  Sigsbee  of  the  u  Maine  "  at  once  cabled  the 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  42  I 

Navy  Department  of  the  disaster  and  said,  "  public  opin- 
ion should  be  suspended  until  further  reports."  The 
government  at  Washington  at  once  appointed  a  Board 
of  Inquiry,  consisting  of  Captain  Wm.  T.  Sampson,  of 
the  "  Iowa,"  Captain  F.  E.  Chadwick,  of  the  "  New  York," 
Lieutenant-Commander  W.  P.  Potter,  of  the  "  New 
York,"  and  Adolph  Marix,  Judge- Advocate  of  the  court, 
to  proceed  to  Havana  as  a  Court  of  Inquiry.  The  wild- 
est rumors  were  current  and  excitement  at  white  heat, 
but  following  the  example  set  by  Captain  Sigsbee,  the 
nation  with  a  self-control  that  excited  favorable  com- 
ment throughout  the  world,  awaited  the  decision  of  the 
Court.  The  principal  nations  were  quick  to  express 
their  sympathy  in  this  awful  disaster.  At  this  time  the 
military  resources  of  the  United  States  were  at  a  low 
ebb.  There  was  not  powder  enough  in  the  forts  of  New 
York  to  permit  of  gun  practice  for  the  artillery  com- 
panies. The  magazines  of  the  navy  were  in  not  much 
better  condition.  It  was  at  this  stage  that  selfishness, 
partisanship  and  unworthy  qualities  passed  into  the  back- 
ground and  a  wave  of  patriotism,  self-sacrifice  and  com- 
passion swept  over  the  country. 

$50,000,000  for  Defense. 

The  Naval  Board  of  Inquiry  at  once  began  their  work, 
and  as  week  after  week  passed  without  any  public  ex- 
pression from  them,  the  tension  became  severe.  While 
hoping  for  the  best  the  administration  was  preparing  for 
the  worst.  March  8th,  the  House  of  Representatives 
unanimously  voted  to  place  $50,000,000  at  the  unqualified 
disposal  of  President  McKinley  as  an  emergency  fund 
for  national  defense,  and  the  next  day  the  Senate,  by  a 
unanimous  vote,  confirmed  the  appropriation. 

Report  of  Board. 

March  22,  the  Board  of  Inquiry  made  their  formal 
report : 


422  THE    PASSING    OF    SPAIN    AND 

"The  discipline  and  disposition  of  stores  on  board  the  ship  was  every- 
thing that  could  be  desired.  That  there  were  two  explosions  of  a  distinctly 
different  character  with  a  short  interval  between  them.  The  forward  part  of 
the  ship  was  lifted  to  a  marked  degree  at  the  time  of  the  first  explosion.  The 
second  explosion,  in  the  opinion  of  the  Court,  was  caused  by  the  explosion 
of  two  or  more  of  the  forward  magazines  of  the  '  Maine. '  A  part  of  the  outer 
wall  of  the  ship  n  1-2  feet  from  the  middle  and  6  feet  above  the  keel  in  its 
normal  position,  was  forced  up  so  as  to  be  more  than  4  feet  above  the  sur- 
face of  the  water  and  therefore  about  34  feet  above  what  it  would  be  if  the 
ship  had  been  sunk  uninjured.  The  outside  bottom  plating  was  bent  into  a 
reversed  V  shape  (see  cut).  At  frame  18  the  vertical  keel  is  broken  in  two. 
This  break  is  now  about  6  feet  above  the  surface  of  the  water  and  about  30 
feet  above  its  normal  position.  In  the  opinion  of  the  Court  this  effect  could 
have  been  produced  only  by  the  explosion  of  a  mine  situated  under  the  bot- 
tom of  the  ship  and  somewhat  on  the  port  side.  The  Court  finds  that  the 
loss  of  the  '  Maine  '  on  the  occasion  named  was  not  in  any  respect  due  to  fault 
or  negligence  on  the  part  of  any  of  the  officers  or  members  of  the  crew  of 
said  vessel.  In  the  opinion  of  the  Court  the  'Maine'  was  destroyed  by  the 
explosion  of  a  submarine  mine  which  caused  the  partial  explosion  of  two  or 
more  of  her  forward  magazines.  The  Court  has  been  unable  to  obtain  evi- 
dence fixing  the  responsibility  for  the  destruction  of  the  'Maine'  upon  any 
person  or  persons." 

Public  Opinion. 

f  The  horrible  tales  of  suffering  sustained  by  the  recon- 
centrados  and  the  destruction  of  the  "  Maine"  seemed 
likely  to  arouse  public  opinion  to  such  a  pitch  that  noth- 
ing but  immediate  war  would  satisfy  it.  The  feeling  in 
,  the  United  States  was  one  of  genuine  sympathy  and 
\^desire  to  assist  the  Cubans.  The  attitude  of  Europe  was 
different.  With  the  exception  of  England  the  great 
powers  seemed  to  look  upon  the  Cuban  insurrection  as 
something  instigated  and  fostered  by  the  United  States 
for  the  express  purpose  of  eventually  giving  this  country 
an  excuse  to  intervene  and  annex  the  island. 

April  7,  ambassadors  of  the  six  great  powers  called  on 
the  President  and  presented  an  address,  and  in  the  name 
of  their  governments  made 

"A  pressing  appeal  to  the  feelings  of  humanity  and  moderation  of  the  Presi- 
dent and  of  the  American  people  in  their  existing  differences  with  Spain. 
They  earnestly  hope  that  further  negotiations  will  lead  to  an  agreement 
which,  while  securing  the  maintenance  of  peace,  will  afford  all  necessary 
guarantees  for  the  re-establishment  of  order  in  Cuba.  The  powers  do  not 
doubt  that  the  humanitarian  and  disinterested  character  of  this  representation 
will  be  fully  recognized  and  appreciated  by  the  American  nation." 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  423 

Although  it  was  an  unusual  action  for  the  President 
to  grant  an  audience  to  more  than  one  ambassador  at  a 
time  and  excited  considerable  criticism,  his  sturdy  reply 
sufficiently  indicated  his  position : 

{  "The  Government  of  the  United  States  appreciates  the  humanitarian  and 
'v  disinterested  character  of  the  communication  now  made  on  behalf  of  the 
J  powers  named,  and,  for  its  part,  is  confident  that  equal  appreciation  will  be 
^  shown  for  its  own  earnest  and  unselfish  endeavors  to  fulfill  a  duty  to 
f  humanity  by  ending  a  situation  the  indefinite  prolongation  of  which  has 
\  become  insufferable." 

The  President's  Message. 

April  nth  President  McKinley  sent  his  famous  mes- 
sage to  Congress,  with  consular  correspondence.  It  was 
strong  and  conservative.  It  recited  the  horrors  of  Span- 
ish methods  and  declared  that  the  war  must  stop.  His 
handling  of  the  question  of  recognition  met  with  a  good 
deal  of  criticism,  but  subsequent  events  have  only  proven 
the  wisdom  of  his  position. 

"  Nor  from  the  standpoint  of  expediency  do  I  think  it  would  be  wise  or 
prudent  for  this  Government  to  recognize  at  the  present  time  the  independ- 
ence of  the  so-called  Cuban  Republic.  Such  recognition  is  not  necessary  in 
order  to  enable  the  United  States  to  intervene  and  pacify  the  island.  To 
commit  this  country  now  to  the  recognition  of  any  particular  government  in 
Cuba  might  subject  us  to  embarrassing  conditions  of  international  obligation 
toward  the  organization  so  recognized.  In  case  of  intervention  our  conduct 
would  be  subject  to  the  approval  or  disapproval  of  such  government.  We 
would  be  required  to  submit  to  its  direction  and  to  assume  to  it  the  mere 
relation  of  a  friendly  ally. 

"When  it  shall  appear  hereafter  that  there  is  within  the  island  a  govern- 
ment capable  of  performing  the  duties  and  discharging  the  function  of  a 
separate  nation,  and  having,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  the  proper  forms  and  attri- 
butesof  nationality,  such  governmentcan  be  promptly  and  readily  recognized, 
and  the  relations  and  interests  of  the  United  States  with  such  nation  adjusted." 

Why  We  Should  Intervene. 

/F    "  i.   In  the  cause  of  humanity  and  to  put  an  end  to  the  barbarities,  blood- 

ff   shed,  starvation   and   horrible   miseries   now  existing  there,  and  which   the 

f     parties  to  the  conflict  are  either  unable  or  unwilling  to  stop  or  mitigate.     It 

is  no  answer  to  say   this  is   all   in    another  country,  belonging  to  another 

nation,  and  is  therefore  none  of  our  business.     It  is  specially  our  duty,  for 

\      it  is  right  at  our  door. 

1)  "  2.  We  owe  it  to  our  citizens  in  Cuba  to  afford  them  that  protection  and 
indemnity  for  life  and  property  which  no  government  there,  can  or  will 
afford,  and  to  that  end  to  terminate  the  conditions  that  deprive  them  of  legal 
protection. 


424  THE    PASSING    OF    SPAIN    AND 

"3.  The  right  to  intervene  may  he  justified  by  the  very  serious  injury  to 
the  commerce,  trade  and  business  of  our  people^and  by  the  wanton  destruc- 
tion of  property  and  devastation  of  the  islanii. 

"4.  The  present  condition  of  affairs  in  Cuba  is  a  constant  menace  to  our 
peace,  and  entails  upon  this  Government  an  enormous  expense.  With  such 
a  conflict  waged  for  years  in  an  island  so  near  us  and  with  which  our  people 
have  such  trade  and  business  relations *-*w1r*:n  th«. five's  and  liberty  of  our 
citizens~Xre  in  constant  danger,  and  their  property  destroyed  and  themselves 
ruined  — w4^re  our  trading  vessels  are  liable  to  seizure  and  are  seized  at  our 
very  door  by  v^arships  of  a  foreign  nation,  the  expeditions  of  filibustering 
that  we  are  powerless  to  prevent  altogether,  and  the  irritating  questions  and 
entanglements  thus  arising  —  all  these  and  others  that  I  need  not  mention, 
with  the  resulting  strained  relations,  are  a  constant  menace  to  our  peace,  and 
compel  us  to  keep  on  a  semi-war-footing  with  a  nation  with  which  we  are  at 
peace." 

On  the  1 3th  of  April  the  House  Committee  of  For- 
eign Affairs  reported  a  resolution,  which  was  adopted  the 
same  day  by  a  vote  of  322  to  19,  directing  the  President 
to  intervene  at  once  in  Cuban  affairs,  to  use  the  army 
and  navy  to  carry  out  the  provisions  of  this  act,  and 
further  directed  him  to  establish  in  the  island  a  free  and 
independent  government  of  the  people.  The  House  was 
prepared  to  support  the  President;  the  Senate  was 
determined  to  grant  formal  recognition  to  the  insur- 

fents.     Sev?ral    conferences    between    the    House    and 
enate  were  held,  and  finally,  in  the  small  hours  of  the 
morning  of  April  igth,  the  following  resolutions  were 
adopted : 

1.  "That  the  people  of  the  Island  of  Cuba  are,  and  of  right  ought  to  be, 
free  and  independent. 

2.  "That  it  is  the  duty  of  the  United  States  to  demand,  and  the  Govern- 
ment of  the  United  States  does  hereby  demand,    that   the   Government  of 
Spain  at  once  relinquish  its  authority  and  government  in  the  island  of  Cuba 
and  withdraw  its  land  and  naval  forces  from  Cuba  and  Cuban  waters. 

3.  "That  the  President  of  the  United  States  be.  and  he  hereby  is,  directed 
and  empowered  to  use  the  entire  land  and  naval  forces  of  the  United  States, 
and  to  call  into  the  actual  service  of  the   United   States   the  militia  of  the 
several'States  to  such  an  extent  as  may  be  necessary  to  carry  these  resolu- 
tions into  effect. 

4.  "That  the  United  States  hereby  disclaims  any  disposition  or  intention 
to  exercise  sovereignty,  jurisdiction  or  control  over  said   island,  except  for 
the  pacification   thereof,  and  asserts  its  determination  when   that  is  accom- 
plished to  leave  the  government  and  the  control  of  the  island  to  its  people." 

The  President  signed  the  resolution  the  next  day  and 
prepared  and  forwarded  to  the  Spanish  government  an 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  425 

ultimatum  giving  them  three  days  to  accede  to  our  de- 
mands. Upon  receiving  a  copy  of  the  President's  ulti- 
matum the  Spanish  minister  at  Washington  asked  for 
his  passports,  turned  Spanish  interests  over  to  the  French 
ambassador  and  left  for  Canada.  Spain  detained  the 
ultimatum  at  the  telegraph  office  until  after  she  could 
call  Minister  Woodford,  who  was  informed  that  the 
action  of  the  president  and  Congress  was  regarded  by 
Spain  as  a  declaration  of  war,  and  on  the  morning  of 
the  2ist  he  was  given  his  passports  and  escorted  as  far  as 
the  boundary  line  of  France.  England  has  held  that  the 
date  of  war  began  not  with  the  formal  declaration,  but 
April  2ist,  the  day  Minister  Woodford  was  handed  his 
passports.  The  date  is  important  and  affects  the  valid- 
ity of  the  capture  of  prizes. 

Friday,  April  22,  the  President  issued  a  call  for  125,000 
volunteers  and  declared  a  blockade  of  the  north  coast  of 
Cuba  from  Cardenas  to  Bahia  Honda,  inclusive,  and 
the  port  of  Cienfuegos  on  the  south  coast.  Just  previous 
to  this  Rear  Admiral  Sicard  in  command  of  the  North 
Atlantic  fleet  at  Key  West  had  been  retired  and  the 
command  was  given  to  Capt.  William  T.  Sampson,  who 
was  made  acting  rear-admiral.  The  fleet  consisted  of 
the  following  vessels : 

Battleships  Iowa,  Capt.  Evans  ;  Indiana,  Capt.  Taylor.  Monitor  Amphi- 
trite,  Capt.  Barclay.  Armored  cruiser  New  York,  Capt.  Chadwick.  Pro- 
tected cruiser  Cincinnati,  Capt.  Chester.  Unprotected  cruiser  Detroit, 
Commander  Dayton.  Gunboats  Wilmington,  Commander  Todd  ;  Helena, 
Commander  Swinburne  ;  Nashville,  Commander  Maynard  ;  Castine,  Com- 
mander Perry  ;  Machias,  Commander  Merry  ;  Newport,  Commander  Tilley. 
Dvnamite  cruiser  Vesuvius,  Lieut. -Commander  Pillsbury.  Torpedo  boats, 
Ericsson,  Lieut.  Usher  ;  Foote,  Lieut.  Rogers  ;  Winslow,  Lieut.  Bernadou  ; 
Hawk,  Lieut.  Hood  ;  Hornet,  Lieut.  Helm  ;  Maple,  Lieut. -Commander  Kel- 
logg ;  Osceola,  Lieut.  Purcell  ;  Scorpion,  Lieut. -Commander  Marix  ;  Vixen, 
Lieut.  Sharp ;  Wasp,  Lieut.  Ward ;  Wampatuck,  Lieut.  Jungen  ;  Sioux, 
Ensign  Charardi  ;  Nezinscott,  Mate  Cleveland.  Tug  Leyden,  Boatswain 
Angus,  of  the  auxiliary  fleet. 

Before  daylight  Friday  morning  the  fleet  was  in  motion 
and  at  six  o'clock  the  Spanish  steamer  Buena  Ventura, 


426  THE    PASSING   OF    SPAIN    AND 

the  first  prize,  was  captured  by  the  Nashville,  Patrick 
Mallia,  gunner,  having  the  honor  of  firing  the  first  gun  in 
the  war.  At  one  r.  M.  that  day  Havana  was  completely 
blockaded  and  soon  numerous  prizes  of  the  American 
vessels  began  to  make  their  appearance  at  Key  West. 

Operations  Before  Manila. 

About  the  same  time  Commodore  George  Dewey, 
commanding  the  Asiatic  squadron  at  Hong  Kong,  was 
ordered  to  find  and  destroy  the  Spanish  fleet.  He  had 
under  his  command  the  Olympia  (flagship),  Baltimore, 
Boston,  Concord,  Raleigh,  Petrel  and  the  revenue  cutter 
McCulloch.  Commodore  Dewey  got  under  way  without 
loss  of  time,  left  Mirs  Bay  April  27,  and  steered  straight 
for  the  Philippines.  Saturday,  April  3Oth,  he  arrived 
off  Subig  Bay,  some  30  miles  north  of  Manila.  The 
Boston,  Baltimore  and  Concord  reconnoitered  the  Bay 
looking  for  the  Spanish  fleet.  Not  finding  them,  the 
squadron  headed  for  Manila  Bay,  taking  care  to  arrive 
off  the  entrance  after  dark.  The  entrance  is  about  six 
miles  wide,  and  divided  by  Corregidor  Island,  where 
batteries  were  mounted,  into  two  channels  the  larger  aivl 
the  smaller.  Early  Sunday  morning  before  light,  formed 
in  line  of  battle,  they  started  through  the  smaller  chan- 
nel. The  "  Olympia  "  was  leading,  followed  by  the  "  Balti- 
more," "  Raleigh,"  "  Petrel,"  "  Concord,"  and  the  "  Boston ; " 
then  the  second  line,  made  up  of  the  revenue  cutter 
"  McCulloch "  and  the  transports  "  Naushan "  and 
"  Zarifo."  The  entrance  was  guarded  by  fortifications 
mounting  heavy  guns  and  the  channel  was  supposed  to 
be  defended  by  mines.  The  Spanish  maps  on  which  the 
navigators  had  relied  proved  to  be  worthless,  but  with 
their  men  at  quarters  and  their  guns  trained  in  the 
direction  of  the  batteries,  they  proceeded  silently  on  the 
way,  knowing  every  moment  that  they  might  be  blown 
into  eternity,  and  expecting  that  the  guns  of  Corregidor 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  427 

Island  would  certainly  open  on  them,  but  there  was  only 
a  silence  so  intense  as  to  be  awful  in  its  strain.  The 
"  Olympia,"  the  "  Baltimore,"  the  "  Raleigh,"  the  "  Petrel  " 
and  the  "  Concord  "  had  passed  without  discovery,  when 
flames  from  the  funnels  of  one  of  the  ships  attracted  a 
sleepy  sentinel.  A  bugle  rang  out,  a  rocket  shot  up,  a 
flash,  and  a  shot  flew  across  the  water.  The  "  Boston  " 
opened  fire  at  the  fort,  which  replied,  but  the  fleet  had 
passed  the  guard.  They  now  slowly  made  a  circuit  of 
the  bay,  and  when  morning  broke  were  off  the  city  of 
Manila,  but  found  no  signs  of  the  Spanish  fleet  there. 
Steaming  slowly  on,  they  soon  came  upon  them  drawn 
up  in  a  small  bay  flanked  by  the  heavy  batteries  of 
Cavite  arsenal.  About  5  o'clock  the  enemy  opened 
fire.  Dewey  signaled  his  ships  to  close  up,  and  turning 
to  Captain  Gridley  of  the  "  Olympia  "  said,  "  Any  time 
when  you  are  ready,  Gridley."  Gridley  was  ready  and 
almost  instantly  the  forward  8-inch  guns  spoke  with  a 
terrific  crash.  The  smoke  and  splinters  could  be  seen 
flying  from  the  Spanish  ship  opposite,  and  a  battle  that 
is  likely  to  change  the  destiny  of  this  nation  had  begun. 

"The  squadron  then  proceeded  to  the  attack,  the  flagship  Olympia,  under 
my  personal  direction,  leading,  followed  at  a  distance  by  the  Baltimore. 
Raleigh,  Petrel,  Concord  and  Boston  in  the  order  named,  which  formation 
was  maintained  through  the  action.  The  squadron  opened  fire  at  5:  41  A.  M. 
While  advancing  to  the  attack  two  mines  were  exploded  ahead  of  the  flag- 
ship, too  far  to  be  effective.  The  squadron  maintained  a  continuous  and 
precise  fire  at  ranges  varying  from  5,000  to  2,000  yards,  countermarching  in 
a  line  approximately  parallel  to  that  of  the  Spanish  fleet.  The  enemy's  fire 
was  vigorous,  but  generally  ineffective.  Early  in  the  enagagement  two 
launches  put  out  toward  the  Olympia  with  the  apparent  intention  of  using 
torpedoes.  One  was  sunk  and  the  other  disabled  by  our  fire  and  beached 
before  they  were  able  to  fire  their  torpedoes. 

"  At  7  A.  M.  the  Spanish  flagship  Reina  Christina  made  a  desperate  attempt 
to  leave  the  line  and  come  out  to  engage  at  short  range,  but  was  received 
with  such  a  galling  fire,  the  entire  battery  of  the  Olympia  being  concentrated 
upon  her,  that  she  was  barely  able  to  return  to  shelter  of  the  point.  The 
fires  started  in  her  by  our  shell  at  the  time  were  not  extinguished  until  she 
sank.  The  three  batteries  at  Manila  had  kept  up  a  continuous  fire  from 
the  beginning  of  the  engagement,  which  fire  was  not  returned  by  my  squad- 
ron. The  first  of  these  batteries  was  situated  on  the  south  mole  head  at  the 
entrance  of  the  Pasig  river,  the  second  on  the  south  portion  of  the  walled 
city  of  Manila,  and  the  third  at  Molate,  about  one-half  mile  further  south. 


428  THE    PASSIXr;    OF    SPAIX   AXD 

At  this  point  I  sent  a  message  to  the  Governor-General  to  the  effect  that  if 
the  batteries  did  not  cease  firing  the  city  would  be  shelled.  This  had  the 
effect  of  silencing  them. 

"At  7:45  A.  M.  I  ceased  firing  and  withdrew  the  squadron  for  breakfast. 
At  1 1 :  16  I  returned  to  the  attack.  By  this  time  the  Spanish  flagship  and  almost 
all  the  Spanish  fleet  were  in  flames.  At  12:30  the  squadron  ceased  firing, 
the  batteries  being  silenced  and  the  ships  sunk,  burned  and  deserted. 

"At  12:40  the  squadron  returned  and  anchored  off  Manila,  the  Petrel 
being  left  behind  to  complete  the  destruction  of  the  smaller  gunboats,  which 
were  behind  the  points  of  Cavite.  This  duty  was  performed  by  Commander 
E.  P.  Wood  in  ihe  most  expeditious  and  complete  manner  possible. 

"  I  am  happy  to  report  t.iat  the  damage  done  to  the  squadron  under  my 
command  was  inconsiderable.  There  were  none  killed  and  only  seven 
men  m  the  squadron  were  slightly  wounded.  Several  of  the  vessels  were 
struck  and  even  penetrated,  but  the  damage  was  of  the  slightest,  and  the 
squadron  is  in  as  good  condition  now  as  before  the  battle. 

"  I  beg  to  state  to  the  Department  that  I  doubt  if  any  commander-in-chief 
was  ever  served  by  more  loyal,  efficient  and  gallant  captains  than  those  of 
the  squadron  under  my  command.  Captain  Frank  Wildes,  commanding 
the  Boston,  volunteered  to  remain  in  command  of  his  vessel  although  his 
relief  arrived  before  leaving  Hong  Kong.  Assistant  Surgeon  Kindelberger, 
of  the  Olympia,  and  Gunner  J.  J.  Evans,  of  the  Boston,  also  volunteered  to 
remain  after  orders  detaching  them  h-id  arrived.  The  conduct  of  my  per- 
sonal staf  was  excellent.  Commander  B.  P.  Lamberton,  chief  of  staff,  was 
a  volunteer  for  that  position,  and  gave  me  most  efficient  aid.  Lieulenant 
Brumby,  flag  lieutanant,  and  Ensign  E.  1'.  >cott,  aide,  performed  their 
duties  as  signal  officers  in  a  highly  creditable  manner.  Caldwell,  flag  secre- 
tary, volunteered  for  and  was  assigned  to  a  subdivision  of  the  5-inch  bat- 
tery. Mr.  J.  L.  Stickney,  formerly  an  officer  in  the  United  States  N'avy,  and 
now  correspondent  for  the  New  York  '  Herald,'  volunteered  for  duty  as  my 
aide,  and  rendered  valuable  service.  I  desire  especially  to  mention  the 
coolness  of  Lieutenant  C.  G.  Calkins,  the  navigator  of  the  Olympia,  who 
came  under  my  personal  observation,  being  on  the  bridge  with  me  through- 
out the  entire  action,  and  giving  the  ranges  to  the  guns  with  accuracy  that 
was  proven  by  the  excellence  of  the  firing. 

"On  May  2,  the  day  following  the  engagement,  the  squadron  again  went 
to  Cavite,  where  it  remains.  On  the  3d,  the  military  forces  evacuated  the 
Cavite  arsenal,  which  was  taken  possession  of  by  a  landing  party.  On  the 
same  day  the  Raleigh  and  Baltimore  secured  the  surrender  of  the  batteries 
on  Corregidor  Island,  paroling  the  garrison  and  destroying  the  guns.  On 
the  morning  of  May  4  the  transport  Manila,  which  had  been  aground  in 
Bakor  Bay,  was  towed  off  and  made  a  prize."* 

The  comparison  of  the  losses  in  this  battle  is  startling. 
Two  officers  and  six  men  on  board  the  ''Baltimore" 
were  slightly  wounded,  the  only  casualties  on  the  side 
of  the  Americans.  The  Spaniards  lost  101  killed  and 
280  wounded.  There  were  destroyed  two  protected 
cruisers,  five  unprotected  cruisers,  a  transport  and  a  serv- 

*  Admiral  Uewey's  Official  Report. 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA,  429 

ing  vessel,  two  vessels  captured  and  other  property  cap- 
tured and  destroyed,  all  estimated  to  be  worth  about 
$6,000,000.  The  damage  to  the  American  fleet  did  not 
exceed  $5,000. 

The  news  of  the  victory  electrified  the  world.  Its 
effect  in  Europe  was  especially  marked.  A  Spanish 
fleet  defended  by  land  batteries  had  been  attacked  and 
destroyed  without  loss  of  life  to  the  assailants,  an 
entrance  to  a  harbor  supposed  to  be  almost  inpregnable 
had  been  passed  without  loss  and  almost  without  dis- 
covery. The  effect  of  the  victory  on  the  future  of  this 
country  must  certainly  be  a  marked  one.  It  has  opened 
up  to  us  the  possibility  of  a  "  new  national  policy,"  and 
more  than  any  other  event  seems  to  have  aroused  the 
American  ambition  for  a  wider  sphere  in  international 
affairs. 

Arrangements  for  the  organization  of  a  force  of  20,000 
men  under  the  command  of  General  Wesley  Merritt  were 
at  once  made  and  reinforcements  hastened  to  the  assist- 
ance of  Admiral  Dewey  with  the  greatest  possible  dis- 
patch. He  had  brought  with  him  in  the  "  McCulloch  " 
from  Hong  Kong  the  rebel  leader  Aguinaldo,  who  at 
once  proceeded  to  put  himself  in  communication  with  the 
natives  and  organized  the  insurgents  with  himself  at  their 
head.  He  soon  became  so  ambitious  as  to  be  a  danger- 
ous ally,  declared  himself  "  Dictator,"  and  took  to  wear- 
ing a  gold  collar  with  a  gold  whistle.  He  was  a  strange 
mixture  of  shrewdness,  diplomacy  and  childishness.  He 
at  times  assisted  the  Americans  and  at  other  times  re- 
fused them  supplies.  What  he  will  do  in  the  future  re- 
mains to  be  seen. 

The  Germans  had  been  looking  with  longing  eyes  at 
the  Philippine  Islands  and  seized  the  opportunity,  under 
cover  of  protecting  German  interests,  to  send  a  strong 
force  of  war  vessels  to  Manila,  where  they  rendered ^  them- 
selves obnoxious  by  a  very  evident  sympathy  with  the 


43O  THE   PASSING    OF    SPAIN   AND 

Spanish  cause  and  overbearing  manners.  Admiral 
i  )ewey  exercised  great  tact,  preserved  control  of  the  situ- 
ation under  the  most  trying  circumstances,  avoided  any 
open  rupture,  and  maintained  the  dignity  of  the  United 
States.  The  firm  stand  taken  by  Admiral  Dewey  and 
the  arrival  of  the  first  expedition  of  reinforcements  under 
General  Anderson,  left  the  Germans  no  further  excuse, 
and  they  withdrew. 

An  incident  at  Subig  Bay  threatened  to  attain  interna- 
tional importance.  The  German  cruiser  "Irene"  had 
refused  to  allow  the  insurgents  to  attack  a  Spanish  posi- 
tion in  Subig  Bay.  July  yth,  Dewey  sent  the  "  Raleigh  " 
and  "  Concord  "  to  that  point.  As  soon  as  the  "  Raleigh  " 
opened  fire  on  the  fort  the  German  cruiser  discreetly 
withdrew.  Fifteen  hundred  Spaniards  surrendered  with- 
out much  resistance.  The  commander  of  the  "  Irene" 
said  he  had  interfered  in  the  cause  of  humanity,  and 
offered  to  hand  over  to  Dewey  certain  refugees,  but  his 
offer  was  declined. 

The  cruiser  "Charleston,"  convoying  three  transports 
of  the  first  relief  expedition,  reached  Cavite  June  3Oth. 
On  the  way  they  stopped  at  the  island  Guam,  one  of  the 
Ladrones,  took  possession  of  it,  left  a  company  of  the 
Fourteenth  artillery  in  charge,  and  carried  the  governor, 
Spanish  officers  and  54  soldiers  as  prisoners  of  war  to 
Manila.  Admiral  Dewey  was  reinforced  by  the  double 
turreted  monitors  "  Monadnock  "  and  "  Monterey  "  and 
the  cruiser  "  Charleston."  General  Merritt  upon  his 
arrival  extended  his  line  before  the  city  and  was  vigorously 
attacked  July  3ist,  losing  13  dead  and  47  wounded. 
The  Spaniards  were-  repulsed  with  great  loss.  It  is 
likely  that  considerable  trouble  will  be  experienced  in 
preserving  order  there  until  some  settled  form  of  govern- 
ment shall  have  been  agreed  upon. 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  43! 

Matanzas. 

The  first  engagement  of  the  American  navy  with 
Spanish  forts  occurred  April  27th,  when  three  vessels  of 
Admiral  Sampson's  fleet,  the  "  New  York,"  the  monitor 
"  Puritan  "  and  the  cruiser  "  Cincinnati,"  exchanged  shots 
with  the  batteries  at  Matanzas.  The  ships  fired  about  300 
shots  at  a  range  of  from  3,500  to  7,000  yards.  The  dam- 
age to  the  enemy  was  probably  insignificant.  General 
Blanco  reported  it  as  one  mule  killed.  None  of  our 
vessels  were  hit  Though  the  affair  excited  considerable 
comment  at  the  time,  it  was  important  only  in  giving  our 
men  some  target  practice  and  demonstrating  that  the 
Spaniard  is  the  poorest  gunner  on  earth. 

Reverse  at  Cardenas. 

The  most  serious  reverse  sustained  by  the  American 
navy  was  that  at  Cardenas,  May  nth,  when  the  unpro- 
tected cruiser  "  Wilmington,"  the  gunboat  "  Machias," 
the  revenue  cutter  "  Hudson,"  and  the  torpedo  boat 
"  Winslow,"  made  an  attack  on  that  port  for  the  purpose 
of  cutting  out  three  small  gunboats  in  the  harbor.  The 
draft  of  the  "  Wilmington "  would  not  allow  her  to 
approach  nearer  than  2,000  yards,  and  as  tfye  gunboats 
could  not  be  seen  at  that  distance  the  "  WTinslow  "  was 
ordered  to  go  in  and  find  them.  The  torpedo  boat  had 
gone  about  700  yards  when  she  was  fired  upon  by  a  gun- 
boat and  a  shore  battery.  There  was  a  sharp  exchange 
of  shots  for  about  twenty  minutes,  when  it  became  evi- 
dent that  the  "Winslow"  was  disabled.  Lieutenant 
Newcomb  of  the  revenue  cutter  "  Hudson,"  gallantly 
steamed  in  under  fire,  took  the  "  Winslow  "  in  tow,  and 
brought  her  out  in  safety.  The  "  Winslow  "  was  dis- 
abled, one  officer,  Ensign  Worth  Bagley,  and  four  men 
killed,  and  three  men  wounded,  including  Lieutenant 


432  THE    PASSING    OF    SPAIN    AND 

Bernardo,  commander  of  the  "  Winslow."  In  this  brave 
but  ill-advised  attempt  we  suffered  a  greater  loss  than  in 
the  naval  victories  at  Manila  and  off  Santiago  combined. 

Bombardment  of  San  Juan. 

May  1 2th,  Admiral  Sampson's  squadron,  consisting  of 
the  battleships  "Iowa"  and  "Indiana,"  the  armored 
cruiser  "  New  York,"  the  monitors  "  Terror "  and 
"  Amphitrite,"  and  the  cruisers  u  Detroit "  and  "  Mont- 
gomery," with  the  torpedo  boat  "  Porter,"  in  search  of  the 
Cape  Verde  fleet,  arrived  off  San  Juan,  Porto  Rico. 
They  entered  the  harbor,  and  not  finding  Cervera, 
engaged  in  some  target  practice  with  the  fortifications  and 
reported  them  silenced.  The  fleet  suffered  little  damage 
—  the  "New  York"  and  the  "Iowa"  each  being  hit 
once,  one  man  killed  and  six  wounded.  Though  the 
action  itself  was  a  minor  one,  it  was  important  in  shaping 
the  course  of  Cervera's  fleet.  He,  hearing  that  Sampson 
was  at  San  Juan,  pushed  on  to  Curacoa,  an  island  about 
75  miles  from  the  Venezuela  coast,  belonging  to  the 
Netherlands.  Cervera  was  unable  to  obtain  any  coal 
there,  and  being  short  of  fuel,  ran  into  Santiago,  where 
Commodore  Schley  "  bottled  him  up."  Coal  is  not  uni- 
formly held  to  be  contraband  of  war.  Perhaps  the  Dutch 
inhabitants  remembered  the  treatment  their  ancestors  had 
received  at  the  hands  of  the  Duke  of  Alva. 

The  Santiago  Campaign. 

Admiral  Cervera's  fleet  left  the  Cape  Verde  Islands 
April  25th,  and  for  two  weeks  his  movements  were 
shrouded  in  mystery.  The  Atlantic  cities  feared  attack, 
the  blockade  of  Havana  was  likely  to  be  raised,  and  the 
invasion  of  Cuba  could  not  take  place  while  such  a 
powerful  "  fleet  in  being  "was  in  existence.  All  offen- 
sive movements  were  paralyzed.  May  13  news  was 
received  that  Cervera's  squadron  had  been  sighted  off 


THE  ASCENDENCY  OF  AMERICA.  433 

Martinique  and  on  the  15th  it  was  heard  of  at  the  island 
of  Curacao.  On  the  I3th  Commodore  Schley's  "flying 
squadron  "  left  Hampton  Roads  and  steamed  southward. 
Admiral  Sampson's  fleet  left  San  Juan  on  the  i5th, 
headed  toward  Cuba  along  the  northern  coast  of  San 
Domingo.  The  auxiliary  scouts  and  the  fleet  cruisers 
"  Columbia  "  and  "  Minneapolis  "  were  searching  for  the 
Spanish  fleet  in  mid-ocean.  Information  was  received 
the  i  Qth  that  Cervera  had  reached  Santiago,  and  Com- 
modore Schley  was  ordered  from  Cienfuegos,  off  which 
port  he  had  arrived  the  2ist,  to  proceed  at  once  to  San- 
tiago and  blockade  the  narrow  entrance  to  the  harbor. 
He  was  able  to  report  the  28th  that  he  had  seen  and 
recognized  the  Spanish  fleet  in  the  bay  of  Santiago,  and 
Lieutenant  Blue  was  landed  some  distance  from  Santiago 
and  alone  made  a  perilous  trip  over  the  mountains  to 
where  he  could  see  the  harbor  and  recognize  the  fleet. 
All  doubt  was  set  at  rest  and  the  nation  drew  a  breath 
of  relief.  The  invasion  of  Cuba,  which  had  been  delayed, 
went  forward  vigorously.  May  3 1  st,  Commodore  Schley's 
squadron  had  the  honor  of  engaging  in  a  skirmish  with 
the  batteries  about  the  entrance  to  the  harbor  with  the 
"  Cristobal  Colon  "  in  the  background.  Admiral  Samp- 
son joined  Commodore  Schley  June  ist  and  assumed 
command  of  the  fleet.  A  vigilant  blockade  was  kept  up. 
At  three  o'clock  A.  M.  June  3d,  Assistant  Naval  Con- 
structor Richmond  P.  Hobson,  with  a  crew  of  seven  men, 
took  the  collier  "  Merrimac  "  into  the  narrow  entrance  of 
Santiago  harbor  under  the  fire  of  the  guns  from  the 
Spanish  forts  and  fleet,  over  the  mines,  and  sunk  her 
across  the  channel.  No  braver  feat  is  recorded  in  the 
history  of  naval  warfare.  It  was  hoped  the  sunken  ship 
would  temporarily  close  the  channel  and  prevent  the  exit 
of  Cervera's  fleet.  Lieutenant  Hobson  and  his  men 
miraculously  escaped  serious  injury,  left  the  sunken  ship 
on  a  raft,  but  were  captured.  Admiral  Cervera  sent  an 

28 


434  THE    PASSING    OF    SPAIN    AND 

officer  under  a  flag  of  truce  to  Admiral  Sampson,  telling 
him  the  men  were  all  alive  and  offered  to  carry  back  to 
the  prisoners  messages  and  clothing.  They  remained 
as  prisoners  in  Santiago  until  July  6th,  when  their  ex- 
change was  effected  by  Gen.  Shafter,  Admiral  Cervera 
saying  at  that  time:  "Daring  like  theirs  makes  the  bit- 
terest enemy  proud  that  his  fellow  men  can  be  such 
heroes." 

The  American  fleet  did  not  attempt  to  force  the 
entrance. 

The  channel  was  too  narrow,  the  batteries  too  strong 
and  situated  at  too  great  a  height,  the  attitude  of  jealous 
European  powers  too  equivocal  to  permit  the  risk  of  the 
loss  of  a  battleship.  The  action  of  the  fleet  was  confined 
to  occasional  bombardments  and  a  vigilant  Blockade 
that  rendered  escape  for  Cervera  hopeless. 

Landing  at  Guantanamo. 

To  secure  a  position  for  our  ships  to  use  when  coaling 
Lieutenant-Colonel  Huntington  with  about  600  marines' 
landed  June  loth  at  Guantanamo.  The  landing  was 
made  under  the  protection  of  the  guns  of  several  vessels 
from  Admiral  Sampson's  fleet.  The  country  was  covered 
with  dense  thickets  of  tropical  growth,  under  cover  of 
which  Spanish  soldiers  and  guerrillas  kept  up  unceasing 
bushwhacking  attacks.  Unacquainted  with  the  field  and 
confined  to  the  locality  of  the  camp,  our  marines  were  at 
a  serious  disadvantage,  although  their  efforts  were  ably 
seconded  by  the  small  body  of  Cuban  insurgents  who 
joined  them.  For  two  or  three  days  the  skirmishing  was 
almost  constant,  but  the  little  force  of  Americans  held  the 
ground  secured  and  inflicted  heavy  loss  on  the  enemy. 
Early  Sunday  morning  the  Spaniards  made  an  attempt 
to  rush  the  camp,  but  were  driven  back  with  severe  loss. 
The  "  Texas  "  arrived  and  landed  40  marines  with  two 
Colt  automatic  guns  and  the  "  Marblehead  "  moved  up 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF   AMERICA.  435 

and  shelled  the  wooded  hillside  where  the  Spaniards 
were  concealed.  Again  on  the  morning  of  the  I3th 
the  Spaniards  tried  to  rush  the  camp,  but  with  no 
better  success.  On  the  i4th,  our  forces  somewhat 
strengthened,  adopted  an  aggressive  policy,  sent  out  four 
columns  and  were  soon  actively  engaged  with  the  enemy. 
The  Cuban  insurgents  rendered  material  service.  The 
combined  forces  beat  up  the  surrounding  country,  drove 
the  enemy  from  the  thickets,  inflicted  upon  him  a  severe 
loss  and  captured  one  Spanish  officer  and  seventeen  pri- 
vates. From  this  time  the  situation  at  Camp  McCalla 
was  greatly  improved,  intrenchments  were  thrown  up, 
more  Cuban  reinforcements  arrived,  the  war  vessels  gave 
their  support,  and  the  outer  bay  was  securely  held.  The 
marines  held  their  position,  and  the  harbor  has  afforded 
a  safe  base  of  operations  for  Admiral  Sampson's  fleet. 

The  Destruction  of  Cervera's  Fleet. 

Admiral  Cervera  made  a  dash  out  of  the  harbor  9 :35 
A.  M.  Sunday,  July  3.  At  this  time  the  flagship  "New 
York  "  was  about  seven  miles  from  the  entrance,  Admiral 
Sampson  having  started  to  consult  with  General  Shafter. 
The  "  Massachusetts  "  was  coaling  at  Guantanamo  and 
the  others  were  in  their  usual  blockading  position,  from 
two  and  one-half  to  four  miles  from  the  entrance,  in  the 
following  order  from  eastward  to  westward :  "  Indiana," 
"  Oregon,"  "  Iowa,"  "  Texas,"  and  "  Brooklyn."  The  aux- 
iliaries "  Gloucester  "  and  "  Vixen  "  lay  close  to  the  land 
and  nearer  the  harbor  entrance  than  the  large  vessels, 
the  "  Gloucester "  to  the  eastward  and  the  "  Vixen  "  to 
the  westward.  The  torpedo  boat  "  Ericsson "  was  in 
company  with  the  flagship. 

The  Spanish  vessels  came  rapidly  out  of  the  harbor  at  a  speed  estimated  at 
from  eight  to  ten  knots  and  in  the  following  order :  "  Infanta  Maria  Teresa," 
(flagship),  "  Viscaya,"  "  Cristobal  Colon,"  and  "  Almirante  Oquendo." 
Following  the  "Oquendo"  came  the  torpedo  boat  destroyer  "  Pluton " 
and  after  her  the  "  Furor."  The  men  of  our  ships  were  at  Sunday  quarters 
for  "  inspection  ;"  the  signal  was  made  simultaneously  from  several  vessels, 


THE    PASSING    OF    SPAIN    AND 

"  the  enemy's  ships  escaping"  and  "general  quarters  "  were  sounded.  The 
men  cheered  as  they  sprang  to  their  guns  and  fire  was  opened  probably  within 
eight  minutes  by  the  vessels  whose  guns  commanded  the  entrance.  The 
"  New  York"  turned  about  and  steamed  for  the  escaping  fleet  flying  the  sig- 
nal "close  in  toward  harbor  entrance  and  attack  vessels."  *  *  *  She 
was  not  at  any  time  within  the  range  of  the  heavy  Spanish  ships  and  her 
only  part  in  the  firing  was  to  receive  the  individual  fire  from  the  forts  in  pass- 
ing the  harbor  entrance  and  fire  a  few  shots  at  one  of  the  destroyers  thought 
at  the  moment  to  be  attempting  to  escape  from  the  "Gloucester."  The 
Spanish  vessels  upon  clearing  the  harbor  turned  to  the  westward  in  column, 
increasing  their  speed  to  the  full  power  of  their  engines.  *  *  *  The 
initial  speed  of  the  Spaniards  carried  them  rapidly  past  the  blockading  vrs- 
sels  and  the  battle  developed  into  a  chase  in  which  the  "  Brooklyn  "  and 
"  Texas  "  had  at  the  start  the  advantage  of  position.  The  "  Brooklyn  "  main- 
tained this  lead.  *  *  *  Anticipating  the  appearance  of  the  "  Pluton  " 
and  the  "  Furor  "  the  "  Gloucester  "  was  slowed,  thereby  gaining  more  rapidly 
a  high  pressure  of  steam,  and  when  the  destroyers  came  out,  she  steamed  for 
them  at  full  speed  and  was  able  to  close  at  short  range  where  her  fire  was 
accurate,  deadly  and  of  great  volume.  *  *  *  Within  twenty  minutes 
from  the  time  they  emerged  from  Santiago  harbor  the  careers  of  the  "  Plu- 
ton "  and  "Furor"  were  ended  and  two-thirds  of  their  people  killed.  The 
"Furor''  was  beached  and  sunk  in  the  surf;  the  "Pluton"  sank  in  deep 
water  a  few  minutes  later.  After  rescuing  the  survivors  of  the  destroyers, 
the  "Gloucester"  did  excellent  service  in  landing  and  securing  the  crew  of 
the  "  Infanta  Maria  Teresa." 

The  Spanish  cruisers*  suffered  heavily  in  passing  our 
battleships,  and  the  "  Maria  Teresa  "  and  "  Oquendo  " 
were  set  on  fire  during  the  first  fifteen  minutes  of  the 
engagement ;  the  former  had  her  fire  main  cut  by  one  of 
our  first  shots,  a  second  set  her  on  fire,  and  a  third  dis- 
abled one  of  her  engines.  Six  and  a  half  miles  from 
Santiago  harbor  the  "  Maria  Teresa  "  ran  in  on  the  beach, 
and  a  half  mile  farther  on  the  "  Oquendo  "  did  the  same. 
The  Vizcaya  was  beached  at  Acerraderos,  15  miles  from 
Santiago,  at  11:15.  She  was  burning  fiercely,  and  her 
reserves  of  ammunition  on  deck  were  beginning  to  ex- 
plode. 

There  remained  now  of  the  Spanish  ships  only  the  "Cristobal  Colon,"  but 
she  was   their  best  and  fastest  vessel.     *     *     *     When  the  "  Vizcaya  "  went 
ashore    the    "Colon  "  was   about   six   miles  ahead  of  the  "  Brooklyn"  and 
'  Oregon,"  but  her  spurt  was  finished  and  the  American  ships  were  now  gain- 
ng  upon  her.      Behind  the  "  Brooklyn  "  and  •'  Oregon  "  came  the  "  Texas," 
'Vixen"     and    "New   York."      *      *     *      At    11:50  the   "  Brook'yn "    and 
'  Oregon  "  opened  fire  and  got  her  range,  the  "  Oregon's  "  heavy  shells  strik- 
ing beyond  her,  and  at  1:20  she  gave  up  without  firing  another  shot,   hauled 
down   her  colors   and   ran   ashore  at  Rio  Torquino,  48  miles  from  Santiago. 
*      *      *      The   "Iowa,"  assisted   by   the  "  Ericsson  "  and  the  "  Hist,"  took 

*  Admiral  Sampson's  Official  Report. 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  437 

off  the  crew  of  the  "  Vizcaya,"  while  the  "  Harvard  "  and  "  Gloucester"  res- 
cued  those  of  the  "  Infanta  Maria  "  and  "  Almirante  Oquendo."  This  rescue 
of  prisoners,  including  the  wounded  from  the  burning  Spanish  vessels,  was 
the  occasion  of  some  of  the  most  daring  and  gallant  conduct  of  the  day.  The 
ships  were  burning  fore  and  aft,  their  guns  and  reserve  ammunition  were 
exploding,  and  it  was  not  known  at  what  moment  the  fire  would  reach  the 
main  magazine.  In  addition  to  this  a  heavy  surf  was  running  just  inside  of 
the  Spanish  ships,  but  no  risk  deterred  our  officers  and  men  until  their  work 
of  humanity  was  completed.  *  *  *  The  fire  of  the  battleships  was 
powerful  and  destructive,  and  the  resistance  of  the  Spanish  squadron  was  in 
great  part  broken  almost  before  they  had  gone  beyond  the  range  of  their  own 
forts.  The  fine  speed  of  the  "  Oregon  "  enabled  her  to  take  a  front  position 
in  the  chase,  and  the  "  Cristobal  Colon  "  did  not  give  up  until  the  "  Oregon  " 
had  thrown  a  13-inch  shell  beyond  her.* 

Although  the  destruction  of  the  Spanish  ships  was  so 
rapid  and  so  thorough,  very  little  damage  was  done  the 
American  squadron.  The  "  Brooklyn "  was  hit  more 
often  than  the  others,  but  very  slight  damage  was  done, 
the  greatest  being  to  the  "  Iowa."  The  American  loss 
was  one  man  killed  and  one  wounded,  both  on  the 
"  Brooklyn." 

The  Spanish  plan  of  escape,  so  far  as  the  ships  were 
concerned  was  feasible,  and  had  the  Spanish  fleet  been  in 
American  hands,  and  vice  versa,  it  would  have  undoubt- 
edly been  successful.  The  four  Spanish  cruisers  were 
all  of  20-knots  speed,  and  the  destroyers  were  supposed 
to  be  good  for  28  to  30  knots.  Against  them  were  the 
"Iowa,"  17.1  knots,  "Oregon,"  16.8  knots,  "Texas,"  17.8 
knots,  and  the  "Brooklyn,"  21.9  knots.  American  gun- 
nery won  the  day  and  won  it  in  very  short  order.  San- 
tiago adds  its  eloquent  testimony  to  the  truth  that  to-day 
as  of  old,  it  is  "  the  man  behind  the  gun  "  that  wins  the 
fight  The  moment  Cervera's  fleet  was  found  its  de- 
struction became  necessary. 

Shafter's  Army. 

June  I4th,  Maj.-Gen.  Shafter,  commanding  the  5th 
Army  Corps  of  about  1 6,000  men,  made  up  of  all  branches 
of  the  service,  left  Tampa  for  an  attack  on  Santiago. 

*  Admiral  Sampson's  Official  Report. 


THE    PASSING    OF    SPAIN   AND 

The  force  was  composed  \vholly  of  regulars,  except  the 
7  ist  New  York,  the  2d  Massachusetts  and  the  ist  Vol- 
unteer Infantry  (Rough  Riders).  They  embarked  on  35 
transports  with  two  water  boats  and  with  a  strong  con- 
voy, headed  by  the  battleship  "  Indiana,"  proceeded  east- 
ward along  the  north  coast  of  Cuba  around  the  eastern 
point,  Cape  Maysi,  and  arrived  off  Santiago  June  2oth. 
The  expedition  was  remarkable  in  moving  without  an 
unpleasant  occurrence,  and  was  the  largest  of  its  kind 
since  the  Crimean  war.  Upon  his  arrival  General  Shaf- 
ter  with  Admiral  Sampson  met  Lieut.-Gen.  Garcia,  com- 
manding about  4,000  Cubans,  and  made  plans  for  a 
landing  and  attack  on  Santiago.  On  the  22d  the  fleet 
kept  up  a  series  of  demonstrations  along  the  coast  for  20 
miles,  and  so  completely  deceived  the  Spaniards  that  the 
army  was  landed  in  the  face  of  a  force  nearly  as  great  as 
its  own  without  the  loss  of  a  single  life.  The  harbors 
were  shallow,  the  shores  were  rocky,  the  lighters  usually 
thought  necessary  for  such  operations  had  sunk  on  their 
way  to  Cuba,  yet  in  the  face  of  all  these  difficulties  the  first 
landing  was  made  the  22d  at  Daquiri,  on  the  2 3d  another 
at  Siboney.  On  the  24th  the  landing  of  troops  con- 
tinued, and  an  advance  early  in  the  morning  reached  La 
Guasina,  four  miles  west  of  Siboney,  where  an  action  oc- 
curred. The  ist  and  loth  cavalry  charged  in  front,  the 
ist  Volunteer  Cavalry  charged  in  flank  on  the  left  and 
drove  the  enemy  from  his  position,  although  we  sus- 
tained a  severe  loss  in  killed  and  wounded.  By  night- 
fall a  gain  of  more  than  a  mile  had  been  made.  The 
troops  in  this  action  were  under  the  command  of  Gen. 
Young.  By  June  25th  our  forces,  Gen.  Lawton's  division 
in  advance,  occupied  the  high  ridge  of  Savilla  in  full 
view  of  Santiago,  distant  about  five  miles.  Gen. 
Wheeler's  dismounted  cavalry  was  some  distance  behind 
Lawton's  division,  Kent's  division  coming  up  in  the  rear 
of  Wheeler's.  By  the  2/th  they  had  forced  their  way  to 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  439 

points  within  three  miles  of  Santiago.  The  light  bat- 
teries came  up  and  took  position  near  Wheeler's  division, 
about  the  center  of  the  army  as  it  then  stood,  the 
mounted  squadron  of  the  Second  Infantry  occupying  a 
position  near  the  battery. 

Battle  of  El  Caney.  June  3oth,  Gen.  Lawton,  com- 
manding the  Second  Division,  made  a  reconnoissance  of 
the  village  of  El  Caney.  Gen.  Shafter  held  a  consulta- 
tion and  issued  orders  for  an  attack  on  the  village  July 
ist  with  the  object  of  passing  through  and  turning  the 
flank  of  the  enemy. 

The  troops  were  pushed  forward,  moving  at  night  by 
the  light  of  the  moon,  and  one  battery  of  artillery 
reached  a  point  commanding  El  Caney.  About  7  A.  M. 
the  artillery  opened  fire  at  a  range  of  2,400  yards.  They 
were  out  of  range  of  the  small  arms  and  the  enemy  had 
no  artillery.  The  engagement  became  general,  and  the 
fire  was  hot  until  10  A.  M.,  during  which  time  all  the 
lines  were  drawing  closer  to  the  enemy  and  a  continu- 
ous fire  of  musketry  being  kept  up.  By  afternoon  they 
had  closed  in  on  the  village.  A  stone  fort  or  block-house 
situated  on  the  highest  point  at  the  northern  side  com- 
manded the  fields,  the  fire  of  the  artillery  was  concen- 
trated on  this,  and  between  i  and  2  o'clock  an  assault 
made  by  the  infantry  under  Chaffee,  Bates  and  Miles, 
carried  the  position.  The  small  block-houses  on  the 
other  side  of  the  village  kept  up  a  fierce  resistance,  but. 
were  soon  silenced  by  our  infantry  fire  before  the  artillery 
could  be  brought  to  bear  upon  them.  By  night  our 
troops  occupied  the  main  road  leading  into  the  city  of 
Santiago. 

Battle  of  San  Juan.  —  July  ist  found  Wheeler's  divi- 
sion bivouacked  on  the  heights  of  El  Pozo  and  Kent's 
division  to  his  left  near  the  road  back  of  El  Pozo.  At 
6:45  A.  M.  the  first  guns  against  El  Caney  were  heard, 
and  a  little  later  Grimes'  battery  opened  against  San 


440  THE    PASSING   OF    SPAIN    AND 

Juan.  By  9  o'clock  Wheeler's  division  was  in  march 
toward  Santiago.  Continued  skirmishing  was  kept  up 
until  the  stream  Aguadores  was  crossed,  when  the  enemy 
opened  volley  fire  against  the  dismounted  cavalry  who 
were  going  into  position  and  crossing  open  ground. 
Kent's  division  followed  Wheeler's,  turning  to  the  left 
and  advancing  under  a  severe  fire.  At  one  o'clock  the 
whole  force  advanced,  charged,  and  carried  the  enemy's 
first  line  of  intrenchments.  Here  they  halted  and  threw 
up  a  line  of  intrenchments  facing  the  enemy,  who  were 
only  500  to  1,000  yards  distant.  The  cavalry  division 
occupied  the  captured  crest,  and  regiments  of  Kent's 
division  moved  to  the  left.  Gen.  Bates,  Independent 
Brigade  after  taking  part  in  the  battle  of  El  Caney  was 
moved  back  and  went  into  position  July  2d,  at  the 
extreme  left  of  the  lines. 

Before  Santiago. — During  the  whole  of  July  2d,  heavy 
firing  was  kept  up  by  both  sides.  Our  troops  were 
busy  throwing  up  entrenchments  to  sustain  their  posi- 
tions. Batteries  of  artillery  going  into  action  near  San 
Juan,  600  yards  from  the  enemy  and  firing  black  powder, 
were  soon  located  and  driven  back  with  heavy  losses. 
During  this  day  there  were  many  losses  from  hits  made 
at  extreme  range,  the  bullets  passing  over  the  crest  held 
by  our  first  Tine  and  striking  those  in  the  rear. 
Spanish  sharp  shooters  hidden  in  tree  tops  within  our 
own  lines  inflicted  severe  loss  and  did  not  respect  the 
wounded  or  hospital  corps.  The  night  of  July  2d, 
the  enemy  made  an  attack  upon  our  lines,  but  were 
driven  back  with  very  little  loss  to  ourselves.  It  was 
evident  that  the  city  was  doomed.  On  the  morning  of 
July  3rd,  there  was  little  firing  on  either  sides,  and  the 
Spanish  fleet  left  the  harbor  and  were  destroyed.  The 
next  ten  days  were  taken  up  with  negotiations  for  the 
surrender  and  a  desultory  firing. 

The  army  and  city  capitulated  on  the  i4th  of  July, 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  441 

Gen.  Toral  surrendering  all  the  territory  and  forces'  in 
eastern  Cuba,  including  about  12,000  soldiers  who  had 
never  fired  a  gun  against  us,  the  United  States  agreeing 
to  transport  the  Spanish  soldiers  to  Spain,  the  officers  to 
retain  their  side  arms,  and  the  officers  and  men  their  per- 
sonal property.  The  Spanish  commander  was  allowed 
to  take  the  military  archives  belonging  to  his  district. 
The  Spanish  volunteers  and  guerillas  were  allowed  to 
remain  upon  giving  their  parole  and  surrendering  their 
arms.  The  Spanish  forces  marched  out  with  the  honors 
of  war  and  deposited  their  arms  at  a  point  mutually 
agreed  upon.  The  number  of  troops  surrendered 
amounted  to  more  than  24,000.  July  17,  General  Shafter 
reported  to  Washington  as  follows : 

"  I  have  the  honor  to  announce  that  the  American  flag  has  been  this 
instant,  12  o'clock  noon,  hoisted  over  the  house  of  the  Civil  Government. 
An  immense  concourse  of  people  was  present,  a  squadron  of  cavalry  and  a 
regiment  of  infantry  presenting  arms  and  a  band  playing  national  airs.  A 
light  battery  fired  a  salute  of  twenty-one  guns." 

Invasion  of  Porto  Rieo. 

Soon  after  the  fall  of  Santiago,  Gen.  Miles  left  with  an 
army  for  Porto  Rico.  A  landing  was  made  July  25th  on 
the  south  coast  at  Guanica,  fifteen  miles  west  of  Ponce, 
and  the  port  and  town  captured  without  loss,  the  inhab- 
itants receiving  them  with  open  arms.  Soon  after  Ponce, 
a  city  of  50,000  inhabitants,  and  the  largest  in  Porto 
Rico,  surrendered,  the  populace  receiving  the  troops  and 
saluting  the  flag  with  wild  enthusiasm.  The  march 
inland  was  taken  up  in  four  columns,  town  after  town 
falling  into  our  hands  after  only  light  skirmishes,  the 
Spanish  soldiers  surrendering  or  falling  back  and  the 
inhabitants  evincing  the  greatest  pleasure  at  the  appear- 
ance of  the  American  troops.  Peace  negotiations  closed 
the  war  without  heavy  fighting  in  Porto  Rico. 


442  THE    PASSING   OF    SPAIN    AND 

Peace  Negotiations. 

The  overtures  of  peace  were  made  public  August  2d. 
They  stipulated  that  Spain  should  give  up  all  claim  to 
the  island  of  Cuba,  and  cede  to  the  United  States,  Porto 
Rico  and  an  island  in  the  Ladrones.  Furthermore,  the 
United  States  should  occupy  and  hold  Manila  and  sur- 
rounding territory  pending  the  conclusion  of  a  treaty  of 
peace  which  should  determine  the  final  disposition  of 
the  Philippines.  If  these  terms  were  accepted  by  Spain, 
commissioners  of  the  United  States  would  meet  com- 
missioners of  Spain  for  the  purpose  of  concluding  a 
treaty  of  peace. 

Sagasta  summoned  the  heads  of  all  parties  to  confer 
with  him  August  $d.  The  Ministry  was  in  favor  of 
peace,  but  uncertain  of  its  power  to  make  peace. 
Finally,  on  the  evening  of  August  8th,  Spain's  answer 
was  received  and  presented  to  the  President  through 
Monsieur  Cambon,  the  French  ambassador.  In  it  she 
accepted  our  terms  with  the  qualification  that  the  proto- 
col should  contain  certain  concessions  with  regard  to  the 
withdrawal  of  the  Spanish  troops  from  Cuba,  the  dispo- 
sition of  the  Cuban  debt,  and  other  subjects  of  contro- 
versy. On  August  loth  the  protocol  was  drawn  up,  and 
in  it  no  provision  was  made  with  regard  to  the  exceptions 
given  by  Spain  in  her  note.  Monsieur  Cambon  agreed 
provisionally  to  the  terms  of  the  protocol  in  behalf  of 
Spain,  and  cabled  to  Madrid  for  authority  to  attach  his 
signature  to  the  document  as  Spanish  representative. 
The  terms  of  the  protocol  were  essentially  the  same  as 
those  forwarded  to  Spain  ten  days  before,  and  the 
Spanish  Ministry  declared  itself  satisfied.  By  a  brilliant 
diplomatic  coup,  President  McKinleyand  Secretary  Day 
had  placed  the  Spanish  Ministry  in  a  position  where 
they  could  no  longer  parley  nor  procrastinate. 

In  one  hundred  days  Spain  lost  two  fleets,  an  army 
and  all  her  possessions  in  this  hemisphere,  and  America 
stood  forth  a  great  "  world  power." 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  443 

Second  Battle  of  Manila. 

The  same  day  the  protocol  was  signed,  President 
McKinley  issued  a  proclamation  announcing  a  general 
suspension  of  hostilities,  and  hurried  off  instructions  to  the 
various  army  and  navy  leaders  at  their  different  stations, 
but  before  the  news  reached  Dewey  at  Manila  a  second 
battle  had  been  fought.  Almost  a  week  before,  Admiral 
Dewey  and  General  Merritt  had  given  the  Spanish  com- 
mander notice  to  remove  all  noncombatants.*  A  later 
demand  for  the  surrender  of  the  city  having  been  refused, 
the  fleet  opened  fire  about  8:30  A.  M.,  August  13,  great 
care  being  observed  to  prevent  any  shot  falling  into  the 
city  proper.  The  enemy  received  the  fire  of  the  fleet 
without  making  any  response. 

Meanwhile  the  land  forces  were  moving  in  two  columns 
upon  the  Spanish  works.  A  spirited  action  ensued,  but 
the  Spanish  forces  were  unable  to  hold  their  position 
and  retreated  with  heavy  loss,  leaving  part  of  their  line 
of  defense  in  the  possession  of  their  opponents,  who  had 
suffered  a  loss  of  about  12  men  killed  and  40  wounded. 

Spain  foreseeing  the  disaster  had,  with  characteristic 
diplomacy,  technically  "  relieved "  Captain  General 
Augustin,  for  the  express  purpose  of  leaving  no  Spanish 
officer  having  jurisdiction  over  the  whole  group  of 
islands,  and  the  command  of  Manila  had  devolved  upon 
General  Jaudenes.  This  commander  realizing  the  hope- 
lessness of  his  position  signified  a  willingness  to  come 
to  terms. 

The  negotiations  were  carried  on  through  the  Belgian 
consul,  who,  with  Flag  Lieut.  Brumby  of  the  Olympia 
and  Lieut.  Col.  Whittier  of  the  army,  went  ashore  from 
the  flagship.  Upon  their  return  a  white  flag  appeared 
on  the  Spanish  fort,  and  General  Merritt,  with  a  military 
escort,  went  ashore  to  receive  the  surrender  of  the  city. 
The  Spanish  flag  that  for  more  than  350  years  had 

*  See  Appendix. 


444  THE    PASSING    OF    SPAIN. 

floated  over  the  Philippines  as  the  symbol  of  sovereignty 
came  down,  and  Lieut.  Brumby  had  the  honor  of  hoisting 
an  American  flag  from  the  Olympia  in  its  stead. 

Captain  General  Augustin,  by  the  connivance  of  the 
German  Admiral,  escaped  on  board  the  German  warship 
"  Kaiserin  Augusta."  The  insurgents  had  remained 
spectators  of  the  combat,  and  greatly  to  their  disgust 
were  not  allowed  to  plunder  the  city. 

Spain  had  hoped  that  the  Peace  Commission  would 
find  her  still  in  possession  of  Manila  when  she  would 
have  claimed  that  the  city  could  have  held  out  indefi- 
nitely. A  dispatch  from  Madrid  announcing  the  peace 
negotiations  was  sent  to  the  Spanish  commander  August 
1 3,  but  the  American  flag,  if  allowance  for  difference  in 
time  is  made,  was  then  floating  over  the  city,  and  even  if 
the  cable  had  been  working  between  Manila  and  Hong 
Kong,  the  dispatch  would  have  been  too  late. 

The  advantage  of  control  of  Manila  thus  passed  to 
America. 

Occupation  of  Porto  Rico. 

Porto  Rico  was  invaded  on  the  south,  it  appearing  to 
be  a  part  of  General  Miles'  plan  to  drive  all  the  enemy's 
forces  before  him  and  to  leave  open  for  them  lines  of 
retreat  to  San  Juan  on  the  north  coast.  There  he 
expected  to  gather  them  in,  leaving  the  whole  island  in 
the  peaceable  possession  of  the  Americans,  for  four-fifths 
of  the  inhabitants  evinced  the  greatest  pleasure  at  the 
prospect  of  a  change  of  government. 

The  campaign  lasted  nineteen  days  during  which 
time  there  were  five  encounters  rising  to  the  dignity  of 
skirmishes.  Although  the  contour  of  the  country  offered 
many  opportunities  for  defense,  the  Americans  were 
uniformly  and  easily  successful.  Ensign  Curtin  of  the 
"  Dixie  "  landed  at  the  port  of  Ponce,  called  the  com- 
mander of  the  town  proper  to  the  telephone  and  demanded 
his  surrender,  which  was  yielded.  About  the  only  show 


THE    ASCENDENCY    OF    AMERICA.  445 

of  spirited  defiance  by  a  Spanish  officer  was  the  reply  of 
Lieut.  Col.  Nuvillers  to  General  Wilson's  demand  for  his 
surrender,  "  Tell  General  Wilson  to  stay  where  he  is  if 
he  wishes  to  avoid  further  bloodshed."  The  cessation 
of  hostilities  rendered  an  attack  on  Colonel  Nuvillers 
unnecessary. 

Porto  Rico  thus  easily  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
Americans.  It  had  been  a  Spanish  possession  for  more 
than  400  years,  but  a  large  majority  of  its  inhabitants 
were  overjoyed  at  their  escape  from  the  evils  of  Spanish 
administration. 

Evacuation  and  Peace  Commissions. 

Agreeable  to  the  terms  of  the  protocol,  each  nation  named  within  ten  days 
members  of  the  commissions,  who  were  to  meet  within  thirty  days  and  arrange  all 
the  details  of  the  evacuation  of  Cuba  and  Porto  Rico. 

President  McKinley  named  as  members  of  the  Cuban  commission,  Maj.-Gen. 
James  F.  Wade,  Rear  Admiral  William  T.  Sampson,  and  Maj.-Gen.  M.  C. 
Butler.  Captain-General  Blanco  refused  to  serve  on  the  commission,  and  Spain 
named  his  second  in  command,  General  Parrado,  together  with  Captain  Landera 
and  the  leader  of  the  Cuban  Autonomists,  the  Marquis  Montoro. 

The  American  members  of  the  Porto  Ricari  board  were  Maj.-Gen.  John  R. 
Brooke,  second  in  command  in  Porto  Rico  ;  Rear  Admiral  Winfield  S.  Schley, 
and  Brig.-Gen.  William  W.  Gordon.  The  Spanish  members  were  General 
Ortega,  Captain  Vallarino,  and  Senor  Sanches  Aquila. 

By  the  terms  of  the  protocol,  the  Peace  Commission  was  composed  of  ten 
members,  to  meet  in  Paris  before  October  i ,  and  America  very  properly  headed 
her  delegation  with  William  R.  Day,  who  had  rendered  such  distinguished 
service  as  Secretary  of  State.  Judge  Day  is  popularly  credited  with  being  the 
author  of  the  protocol  of  August  12.  Judge  Day's  associates  on  the  commis- 
sion were  Senator  Cushman  K.  Davis,  Senator  William  P.  Frye,  Whitelaw  Reid 
of  the  New  York  Tribune,  and  Justice  White  of  the  Superior  Court. 

The  Peace  Commissioners. 

The  labors  of  the  Peace  Commission  did  not  receive  the  unanimous  approval 
of  the  United  States  Senate,  before  which  body  the  treaty  went  for  ratification, 
and  for  a  time  it  seemed  likely  that  an  extra  session  of  Congress  would  be  called 
to  ratify  the  treaty. 

Taking  advantage  of  the  situation,  the  insurgents  in  the  Philippines  made  them- 
selves as  obnoxious  as  possible.  Their  representative  at  Washington,  Agoncillo, 
was  never  officially  recognized  by  the  Administration,  but  he  put  himself  very 
much  in  evidence  by  his  letters  to  the  press  and  his  calls  upon  members  of  the 
House  and  Senate.  He  may  have  been  deceived  by  the  opposition  to  the  treaty 
into  thinking  that  the  United  States  could  be  worried  into  releasing  the  Philip- 
pines. He  is  popularly  supposed  to  have  sent  a  telegram  to  Aguinaldo  urging 


446 


THE    MASSING    OF    SPAIN. 


him  to  make  the  night  attack  February  4,  for  the  sake  of  its  political  effect  in 
Washington,  and  his  hurried  departure  from  Washington  for  Montreal  would 
indicate  that  he  at  least  had  knowledge  of  what  was  to  come. 

Late  at  night,  Saturday,  February  4.  1899,  Aguinaldo's  forces  about  Manila 
made  a  fierce  attack  upon  the  Americans  under  General  Otis.  Far  from  being 
surprised,  the  Americans  were  apparently  well  prepared  and  returned  the  attack 
with  interest.  The  fight  continued  until  daylight  of  the  next  day,  when  the  navy, 
under  Admiral  Dewey,  took  a  pan  with  characteristic  efficiency  and  the  in- 
surgents were  defeated,  their  loss  in  killed,  wounded,  and  prisoners  amounting  to 
4,000,  while  that  of  the  Americans  was  only  four  officers  and  fifty-three  men 
killed  and  eight  officers  and  207  men  wounded.  The  despised  .45  caliber  Spring- 
field rifle,  with  which  a  large  part  of  General  Otis'  men  were  armed,  seemed  to 
inflict  more  severe  wounds  than  the  Mausers  of  the  insurgents. 

Although  the  skirmishing  continued  for  some  time,  interspersed  with  plots 
to  burn  the  city  and  «M«min«te  the  officers  and  foreigners,  yet  Aguinaldo's 
power  received  such  a  severe  blow  by  this  defeat,  that  other  ciiit-s  began  volun- 
tarily to  submit  to  the  L'nited  States  authority  and  send  delegations  to  wait  upon 
General  Otis  and  Admiral  Dewey. 

Iloilo  was  captured  by  General  Miller  on  the  izth  with  little  effort,  the  insur- 
gents setting  fire  to  the  city  and  withdrawing. 

Treaty  of  Peace  Ratified. 

Contrary  to  Aguinaldo's  expectations,  the  show  of  resistance  in  the  Philip- 
pines did  not  produce  the  desired  effect  in  the  L'nited  States  Senate  and  the 
treaty  of  peace  with  Spain  was  ratified  February  6th.  Party  lines  were  not 
strictly  drawn,  Senators  Hoar  and  Hale,  republicans,  voting  against  the  treaty, 
while  Senators  Gray,  Morgan.  McEnery,  McLaurin,  and  Jones  (Silverite),  demo- 
crats, voted  for  it. 

But  one  branch  of  the  Spanish  Cortes  voted  to  accept  the  treaty,  and  acting 
under  the  advice  of  her  ministers  the  Queen  dissolved  the  Cortes  and  signed  the 
ratification  March  iS,  1899,  without  the  consent  of  that  body.  According  to  the 
Spanish  constitution  the  consent  of  the  Cortes  is  necessary  to  the  alienation  of 
any  Spanish  territory.  The  Queen  relies  on  the  next  Cortes  to  ratify  her  acts. 


THE    PROTOCOL. 


The  signing  of  the  protocol  took  place  in  the  Cabinet  room  of  the  White 
House,  August  12,  Monsieur  Cambon,  the  French  Ambassador,  acting  for 
Spain,  and  Secretary  of  State  William  R.  Day  for  the  United  States.  The 
ceremony  took  place  in  the  presence  of  President  McKinley  and  a  few- 
others.  The  document  was  prepared  in  duplicate,  written  in  parallel  columns 
in  English  and  French,  and  each  nation  will  preserve  a  copy  in  its  archives. 
The  ceremony  was  over  at  4.23. 

Provisions  of  the  Protocol. 

1.  That  Spain  will  relinquish  all  claim  of  sovereignty  over  and  title  to 
Cuba. 

2.  That  Porto  Rico  and  other  Spanish  islands  of  the  West  Indies  and 
an  island  in  the  Ladrones,  to  be  selected  by  the  United  States,  shall  be  ceded 
to  the  latter. 

5.  That  the  United  States  will  occupy  and  hold  the  city,  bay,  and  harbor 
of  Manila,  pending  the  conclusion  of  a  treaty  of  peace  which  shall  determine 
the  control,  disposition,  and  government  of  the  Philippines. 

4.  That  Cuba,  Porto  Rico,  and  other  Spanish  islands  in  the  West  Indies 
shall  be  immediately  evacuated,  and  that  commissioners,  to  be  appointed 
within  ten  days,  shall,  within  thirty  days  from  the  signing  of  the  protocol, 
meet  at  Havana  and  San  Juan,  respectively,  to  arrange  and  execute  the 
details  of  the  evacuation. 

5.  That  the  United  States  and  Spain  will  each  appoint  not  more  than 
five  commissioners  to  negotiate  and  conclude  a  treaty  of  peace.     The  com- 
missioners are  to  meet  at  Paris  not  later  than  October  i. 

6.  On  the  signing  of  the  protocol,  hostilities  will  be  suspended,  and 
notice  to  that  effect  will  be  given  as  soon  as  possible  by  each  government  to 
the  commanders  of  its  military  and  naval  forces. 

The  Treaty  of  Peace. 

An  armistice  and  the  suspension  of  hostilities  followed  immediately  the 
signing  of  the  peace  protocol.  On  August  26,  President  McKinley  named 
the  American  Commissioners.  The  Commissioners  left  New  York  on  Sep- 
tember ijth  and  arrived  in  Paris  ten  days  later.  The  first  joint  session  of 
the  commissions  for  the  two  governments  was  held  on  October  i.  For  over 
two  months  almost  daily  sessions  were  held,  at  which  propositions  and 
counter-propositions  were  exchanged,  until  finally  the  diplomatic  contest 
was  ended  by  the  signing  of  the  treaty  by  the  Commissioners  of  both 
powers  on  December  10.  On  January  4.  1809.  the  treaty  was  transmitted 
to  the  Senate  by  the  President.  It  was  read  in  executive  session  and  at 
once  referred  to  the  Committee  on  Foreign  Relations.  The  committee  re- 
ported the  treaty  favorably  on  January  1 1. 


448  THE    TREATY. 

Text  of  the  Treaty. 

The  United  States  of  America  and  Her  Majesty,  the  Queen  Regent  of  Spain,  in  the 
name  of  her  august  son,  Don  Alfonso  XIII.,  desiring  to  end  the  state  of  war  now  existing 
between  the  two  countries,  have  for  that  purpose  appointed  as  plenipotentiaries  :  — 

The  President  of  the  United  States :  — 

WILLIAM  R.  DAY,  CUSM.MAN  K.  DAVIS,  WILLIAM  1'.  FRYE,  GEORGE  GRAY,  and 
\\iuri  i. AW  RKII>,  citizens  of  the  United  States  ; 

And  Her  Majesty,  the  Queen  Regent  of  Spain  :  — 

D»N  EUGENIO  MONTERO  Rios,  President  of  the  Senate  ;    DON    BUENAVENTURA   DK 

AISAK/T/  A,  : Senator  of  the  Kingdom  and  ex-Minister  of  the  Crown  ;  DON  JOSE   DE  (i.\K- 

Deputy  to  the  Cortes  and  Associate  Justice  of  the  Supreme  Court  ;    DON    U  i  \ 

.  KAMIRI:/.  DK  VILLA  URRUTIA,  Envoy  Extraordinary  and  Minister  Plenipotentiary 

at  Brussels,  and  DON  KAKAI  i.  CERERO,  General  of  Division. 

\Ylio,  having  assembled  in  Paris  and  having  exchanged  their  full  powers,  which  were 
found  to  be  in  due  and  proper  form,  have,  after  discussion  of  the  matters  before  them, 
agreed  upon  the  following  articles  :  — 

Article  I.     Spain  relinquishes  all  claim  of  sovereignty  over  and  title  to  Cuba. 

And  as  the  island  is,  upon  its  evacuation  by  Spain,  to  be  occupied  by  the  United  S 
the  L'nited  States  will,  so  long  as  such  occupation  shall  List,  assume  and  discharge  the  obli- 
gations that  may  under  international  law  result  from  the  fact  of  its  occupation  for  the  pro- 
n  of  life  and  property. 

Art,  .in  cedes  to  the  United  States  the  island  of   Porto  Rico  and  other  islands 

now  under  Spanish  sovereignty  in  the  West  Indies,  and  the  island  of  (iiiam,  in  the  Marianas 
or  I-acli 

Article  III.  Spain  cedes  to  the  United  States  the  archipelago  known  as  the  Philippine 
Islands,  and  comprehending  the  islands  lying  within  the  following  lines  :  — 

A  line  running  from  west  to  east  along  or  near  the  twentieth  parallel  of  north  latitude, 
and  through  the  middle  of  the  navigable  channel  of  Bachti,  from  the  one  hundred  and 
eighteenth  ( i  iSth)  to  the  one  hundred  and  twenty-seventh  (i2;th)  degree  meridian  of  longi- 
tude east  of  Greenwich,  thence  along  th<-  on,-  hundred  and  twenty-seventh  (i2;th)  degree 
meridian  of  longitude  east  of  Greenwich  to  the  parallel  of  four  degrees  and  forty-five  minutes 
(4.45)  north  latitude  to  its  intersection  with  the  meridian  of  longitude  one  hundred  and 
nineteen  degrees  and  thirty-five  minutes  (119.35)  east  of  Greenwich,  thence  along  the  me- 
ridian of  longitude  one  hundred  and  nineteen  degrees  and  thirty-live  minutes  ( 110. -. 
of  Greenwich  to  the  parallel  of  latitude  seven  degrees  and  forty  minutes  (7.40)  north  to  its 
intersection  with  the  one  hundred  and  sixteenth  ( i  idtli)  degree  meridian  of  longitii': 
of  Greenwich,  thence  by  a  direct  line  to  the  intersection  of  the  tenth  (totli)  degree  parallel 
of  north  latitude  with  the  one  hundred  and  eighteenth  (nSth)  degree  meridian  of  longitude 
east  of  Greenwich,  and  thence  along  the  one  hundred  and  eighteenth  (nXth)  degree  meridian 
of  longitude  east  of  Greenwich  to  the  point  of  beginning. 

The  I'nited  States  will  pay  to  Spain  the  sum  of  twenty  million  dollars  ($20,000,000) 
within  three  months  after  the  exchange  of  the  ratification  of  the  present  treaty. 

Article  IV.     The  Uni:  .11,  for  ten  years  from  the  date  of  exchange  of  ratifica- 

tions of  the  present  treaty,  admit  Spanish  ships  and  merchandise  to  the  ports  of  the  Philip- 
pine Islands  on  the  same  terms  as  ships  and  merchandise  of  the  L'nited  States. 

Article  V.  The  I'nited  States  will,  upon  the  signature  of  the  present  treaty,  send  back 
to  Spain,  at  its  own  cost,  the  Spanish  soldiers  taken  as  prisoners  of  war  on  the  capture  of 
Manila  by  the  American  forces.  The  arms  of  the  soldiers  in  question  will  be  restored  to 
them. 

Spain  will,  upon  the  exchange  of  the  ratifications  of  the  present  treaty,  proceed  to  evac- 
uate the  Philippines,  as  well  as  the  island  of  Guam,  on  terms  similar  to  those  agreed  upon 
by  the  Commissioners  appointed  to  arrange  for  the  evacuation  of  Porto  Rico  and  other 
isl  uuls  in  the  West  Indies  under  the  protocol  of  August  12,  1898,  which  is  to  continue  in 
force  till  its  provisions  are  completely  executed. 

The  time  within  which  the  evacuation  of  the  Philippine  Islands  and  Guam  shall  be  com- 
pleted shall  be  fixed  by  the  two  governments.  Stands  of  colors,  uncaptured  war  vessels,  small 
arms,  guns  of  all  calibers,  with  their  carriages  and  accessories,  powder,  ammunition,  live 
stock,  and  materials  and  supplies  of  all  kinds  belonging  to  the  land  and  naval  forces  of 
Spain  in  the  Philippines  and  Guam  remain  the  property  of  Spain.  Pieces  of  heavy  ord- 
nance, exclusive  of  field  artillery,  in  the  fortifications  and  coast  defenses,  shall  remain  in 
their  emplacements  for  the  term  of  six  months,  to  be  reckoned  from  the  exchange  of 


THE    TREATY. 


449 


ratifications  of  the  treaty ;  and  the  United  States  may  in  the  meantime  purchase  such 
material  from  Spam  if  a  satisfactory  agreement  between  the  two  governments  on  the  subject 
shall  be  reached. 

Article  VI.  Spain  will,  upon  the  signature  of  the  present  treaty,  release  all  prisoners  of 
war  and  all  persons  detained  or  imprisoned  for  political  offenses  in  connection  with  the  in- 
surrections in  Cuba  and  the  Philippines  and  the  war  with  the  United  States. 

Reciprocally  the  United  States  will  release  all  persons  made  prisoners  of  war  by  the 
American  forces,  and  will  undertake  to  obtain  the  release  of  all  Spanish  prisoners  in  the 
hands  of  the  insurgents  in  Cuba  and  the  Philippines. 

The  government  of  the  United  States  will  at  its  own  cost  return  to  Spain,  and  the  gov- 
ernment of  Spain  will  at  its  own  cost  return  to  the  United  States,  Cuba,  Porto  Rico,  and 
the  Philippines,  according  to  the  situation  of  their  respective  homes,  prisoners  released  or 
caused  to  be  released  by  them  respectively,  under  this  article. 

Article  VII.  The  United  States  and  Spain  mutually  relinquish  all  claims  for  indemnity, 
national  and  individual  of  every  kind  of  either  government,  or  of  its  citizens  or  subjects, 
against  the  other  government,  which  may  have  arisen  since  the  beginning  of  the  late  in- 
surrection in  Cuba  and  prior  to  the  exchange  of  ratifications  of  the  present  treaty,  including 
all  claims  for  indemnity  for  the  cost  of  the  war.  The  United  States  will  adjudicate  and 
settle  the  claim  of  its  citizens  against  Spain,  relinquished  in  this  article. 

Article  VIII.  In  conformity  with  the  provisions  of  Articles  I.,  II.,  and  III.,  of  this 
treaty,  Spain  relinquishes  in  Cuba  and  cedes  in  Porto  Rico  and  other  islands  in  the  West 
Indies,  in  the  island  of  Guam,  and  in  the  Philippine  Archipelago,  all  the  buildings,  wharves, 
barracks,  forts,  structures,  public  highways,  and  other  immovable  property  which  in  con- 
formity with  law  belong  to  the  public  domain  and  as  such  belong  to  the  Crown  of  Spain. 

And  it  is  hereby  declared  that  the  relinquishment  or  cession,  as  the  case  may  be,  to 
which  the  preceding  paragraph  refers,  cannot  in  any  respect  impair  the  property  or  rights 
which  by  law  belong  to  the  peaceful  possession  of  property  of  all  kinds  of  provinces,  munici- 
palities, public  or  private  establishments,  ecclesiastical  or  civic  bodies,  or  any  other  associa- 
tions having  legal  capacity  to  acquire  and  possess  property  in  the  aforesaid  territories 
renounced  or  ceded,  or  of  private  individuals,  of  whatsoever  nationality  such  individuals 
may  be. 

The  aforesaid  relinquishment  or  cession,  as  the  case  may  be,  includes  all  documents 
exclusively  referring  to  the  sovereignty  relinquished  or  ceded  that  may  exist  in  the  archives 
of  the  Peninsula.  Where  any  document  in  such  archives  only  in  part  relates  to  said  sov- 
ereignty a  copyiof  such  part  will  be  furnished  whenever  it  shall  be  requested.  Like  rules 
shall  be  reciprocally  observed  in  favor  of  Spain  in  respect  to  documents  in  the  archives  of 
the  islands  above  referred  to. 

In  the  aforesaid  relinquishment  or  cession,  as  the  case  may  be,  are  also  included  such 
rights  as  the  Crown  of  Spain  and  its  authorities  possess  in  respect  of  the  official  archives 
and  records,  executive  as  well  as  judicial,  in  the  islands  above  referred  to,  which  relate  to 
said  islands  or  the  rights  and  property  of  their  inhabitants.  Such  archives  and  records  shall 
be  carefully  preserved,  and  private  persons  shall,  without  distinction,  have  the  right  to 
require,  in  accordance  with  the  law,  authenticated  copies  of  the  contracts,  wills,  and  other 
instruments  forming  part  of  notarial  protocols  or  files,  or  which  may  be  contained  in  the 
executive  or  judicial  archives,  be  the  latter  in  Spain  or  in  the  islands  aforesaid. 

Article  IX.  Spanish  subjects,  natives  of  the  Peninsula,  residing  in  the  territory  over 
which  Spain  by  the  present  treaty  relinquishes  or  cedes  her  sovereignty,  may  remain  in  such 
territory  or  may  remove  therefrom,  retaining  in  either  event  all  their  rights  of  property,  in- 
cluding' the  right  to  sell  or  dispose  of  such  property  or  of  its  proceeds  ;  and  they  shall  also 


record,  within  a  year  from  the  date  of  the  exchange  of  ratifications  of  this  treaty,  a  declara- 
tion of  their  decision  to  preserve  such  allegiance  ;  in  default  of  which  declaration  they  shall 
be  held  to  have  renounced  it,  and  to  have  adopted  the  nationality  of  the  territory  in  which 
they  may  reside. 

The  civil  rights  and  political  status  of  the  native  inhabitants  of  the  territory  hereby- 
ceded  to  the  United  States  shall  be  determined  by  the  Congress. 

Article  X.  The  inhabitants  of  the  territories  over  which  Spain  relinquishes  or  cedes 
her  sovereignty  shall  be  secured  in  the  free  exercise  of  their  religion. 

Article  XI.  The  Spaniards  residing  in  the  territories  over  which  Spain  by  this  treaty 
cedes  or  relinquishes  her  sovereignty  shall  be  subject  in  matters  civil  as  well  as  criminal,  to 


45O  THE    TREATY. 

the  jurisdiction  of  the  courts  of  the  country  wherein  they  reside,  pursuant  to  the  ordinary 
laws  governing  the  same ;  and  they  shall  have  the  right  to  appear  before  such  court-,  and 
to  pursue  the  same  course  as  citizens  of  the  country  to  which  the  courts  belong. 

Articie  XII.  Judicial  proceedings  pending  at  the  time  of  the  exchange  of  ratifications  of 
this  treaty  in  the  territories  over  which  Spain  relinquishes  or  cedes  her  sovereignty,  shall  be 
determined  according  to  the  following  rules  :  — 

First. — Judgments  rendered  tither  in  civil  suits  between  private  individuals  or  in  criminal 
matters,  before  the  date  mentioned,  and  with  respect  to  which  there  is  no  recourse  or  right 
of  reviews  under  the  Spanish  law,  shall  be  deemed  to  be  final,  and  shall  be  executed  in  due 
form  by  competent  authority  in  the  territory  within  which  such  judgments  should  be 
carried  out 

nd. — Civil  suits  between  private  individuals  which  may  on  the  date  mentioned  be 
undetermined  shall  be  prosecuted  to  judgment  before  the  court  in  which  they  may  then  be 
pending,  or  in  the  court  that  may  be  substituted  therefor. 

Third. — Criminal  actions  pending  on  the  date  mentioned  before  the  Supreme  Court  of 
Spain  against  citizens  of  the  territory  which  by  this  treaty  ceases  to  be  Spanish,  shall  con- 
tinue under  its  jurisdiction  until  final  judgment :  but,  such  judgment  having  been  rendered, 
the  execution  thereof  shall  be  committed  to  the  competent  authority  of  the  place  in  which 
the  case  arose. 

Article  XIII.  The  rights  of  property  secured  by  copyright  and  patents  acquired  by- 
Spaniards  in  the  islands  of  Cuba  and  Porto  Rico,  the  Philippines,  and  other  ceded  territories. 
at  the  time  of  the  exchange  of  the  ratification  uf  this  treaty,  shall  continue  to  be  respected. 
Spanish  scientific,  literary,  and  artistic  work,  not  subversive  of  public  order  in  the  territo- 
ries in  question  shall  continue  to  be  admitted  free  of  duty  into  such  territories  for  the  period 
of  ten  years,  to  be  reckoned  from  the  date  of  the  exchai  :i:i< Mtions  of  thi 

Article  XIV.     Spain  shall  have  the  power  to  establish  consular  otticers  in  the  per- 
places  of  the  territories  the  sovereignty  over  which  has  either  been  relinquished  or  ceded  by 
the  present  treaty. 

Article  XV.  The  government  of  each  country  will,  for  the  term  of  ten  years,  accord  to 
the  merchant  vessels  of  the  other  country  the  same  treatment  in  respect  to  all  port  charges. 
including  entrance  and  clearance  dues,  light  dues  and  tonnage  duties,  as  it  accoriK  to  its  own 
merchant  vessels  not  engaged  in  the  ou-~twU.-  trade. 

This  article  may  at  any  time  Se  terminated  on  six  months'  notice  given  by  either  govern- 
ment to  the  other. 

Article  XVI.  It  is  understood  that  any  obligations  assumed  in  this  treaty  by  the  United 
States  with  respect  to  Cuba  are  limited  to  the  time  of  its  occupancy  thereof  ;  but  it  will  upon 
the  termination  of  such  occupancy  advise  any  government  established  in  the  islands  to  assume 
tlie  same  obligations. 

Article  XVII.  The  present  treaty  shall  be  ratified  by  the  President  of  the  L'nited 
States,  by  and  with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the  Senate  thereof,  and  by  Her  Majesty,  the 
Queen  Regent  of  Spain;  and  the  ratifications  shall  be  exchanged  at  Washington  within  six 
months  from  the  date  hereof,  or  earlier  if  possible. 

In  faith  whereof  we,  the  respective  plenipotentiaries,  hive  signed  this  treaty  and  have 
hereunto  affixed  our  seals. 

I  lone  in  duplicate  at  Paris,  the  tenth  day  of  December,  in  the  year  of  our  Lord  One 
Thousand  Eight  Hundred  and  Ninety-eight. 


INDEX. 


PAGE. 

CUBA.  193-261 

Present  Conditions 193-212 

Agricultural  products , 197 

Climate 195 

Coasts 198 

Compulsory  education 212 

Government 210 

Havana 200 

Isle  of  Pines 199 

Mineral  products 197 

Matanzas 201 

Pinar  del  Rio 200 

Principal  cities  and  towns 203-208 

Provinces 200 

Puerto  Principe 202 

Railroads • 208 

Rivers 1 95 

Santiago  de  Cuba 202 

Soil 197 

Surface. .  „ 194 

Wagon  roads 208 

History 212-261 

American  Filibusters 225 

Black  Eagle 224 

Black  Warrior 226 

Bolivar 224 

British  Capture  Havana 219 

British  Influence 220 

Morro  Captured 221 

The  Mine. .             .....               221 


452  INDEX. 

CUBA  — Continued. 

History.  PAGE. 

Cuban  Agents 236 

Cuban  Provisional  Government 231 

Cubans  Recognized 232 

Cuban  Successes 230 

Cuba's  Title 223 

Discovery  of 213 

Death  of  Maceo 253 

Europe  Concerned 227 

First  Settlements 216 

Good  Offices  of  United  States 234 

Havana  "  Volunteers  " 231 

Hostilities  Begin 230 

How  Cuba's  War  Has  Been  Conducted 256 

Influence  of  Spanish-American  Colonies 224 

Insurrection  Planned 249 

Invasion  of  Velasquez 216 

Las  Casas 222 

Massacre  of  Havana  Students 246 

Murder  of  Dr.  Ruiz 254 

Negro  Plot 224 

Negro  Slavery 217 

Ostend  Manifesto 228 

Peace  of  Zangon 233 

Perils  to  United  States 235 

Period  of  Conspiracies 225 

San  Domingo 223 

Spain's  Irritating  Course 227 

Sufferings  of  Cuba 217-219 

from  Buccaneers 218 

from  Spanish  Rale 218 

Sugar 222 

Summary 232 

Ten  Years'  War 229 

The  "  Allianca  Affair  " 250 

The  "Competitor  "  Incident 253 


INDEX.  453 

CUBA  —  Continued.  PAGE. 

The  Quitman  Expedition 227 

The  Cuba  of  the  Future 261 

The  Reconcentrados  Order 256-261 

The  Virginius  Case 235-246 

Blockade  Runner 236 

British  Flag  Refused 240 

Cuban  Agents 236 

Cuban  Flag 237 

Diplomatic  Action 241-246 

Her  Character  Well  Known 239 

In  Venezuelan  Service 238 

Protected  by  the  "  Kansas  " 238 

Successful  Landing 238 

Takes  Military  Stores  Aboard 237 

The  Fatal  Expedition 240 

True  Ownership  Shown 239 

United  States  Offers  to  Buy 225 

Weyler 25 1 

Why  the  Cubans  Rebelled 247-249 

INTERNATIONAL  LAW 262-306 

Armistice 293 

Articles  of  Geneva  Convention 304 

Blockades 275-280 

American  Practice 277 

A  Declaration  of  Blockade 278 

A  Recognized  Right 278 

Pacific  Blockades 279 

Seward's  Position 276 

Capitulation 294 

Changing  Armament 300 

Conference  at  Brussels 295 

Crime 285 

Declaration  of  Paris 274 

Declaration  of  War 297 

Defined 262 

Deserters 286 


454  INDEX. 

INTERNATIONAL  LAW  — Continued.  PAGE, 

Duties  of  Neutrals 300 

Flag  of  Truce 290 

Giving  of  Quarter 286 

Holy  Alliance 263 

Hospital  Corps ' 286 

Hospital  Flag 291 

How  It  Grew 263 

Indemnity 301 

Intervention 272 

Law  of  War 281 

Martial  Law   280 

Monroe  Doctrine 266-2 7 2 

Animus  of  Doctrine 271 

A  Policy,  Not  a  Law 269 

Enunciated 267 

Its  Principles 270 

Jefferson's  View 266 

Madison's  Opinion 267 

Not  Hostile  to  Monarchies 269 

Origin  of 266 

Notice  of  Bombardment 282 

Parole 292 

Preservation  of  Order 283 

Prisoners 287 

Private  Gain 285 

Private  Property 284 

Private  Property  of  Prisoners 285 

Returning  Non-combatants 282 

Rights  of  a  Neutral 301 

Scouts  and  Spies 288 

Spanish  Declaration  of  War 298 

Spoils  of  War 283 

The  Red  Cross  Society 303 

Things  Forbidden 282 

Traitors 290 

Treatment  of  Rebels 294 


INDEX.  455 

INTERNATIONAL  LAW  —  Continued.  PAGE. 

War 297 

War  Growing  less  Barbarous 273 

EVOLUTION  OF  THE  MODERN  NAVY 306-342 

American  Ironclads 309 

Apportionment  of  Weight 322 

Armored  Cruiser 315 

Armored  Ships   308 

Barbette  and  Turret 321 

Battleships 318 

Class  Requirements 311 

Commerce  Destroyer 312 

Conning  Tower 317 

Cruisers'  Duties .- . , 311 

Definition  of  Terms 339~342 

Development  of  the  Ironclad 306 

Displacement 310 

Double  Bottom 314 

First  English  Turret  Ship 309 

First  Ironclad 307 

Forced  Draft 307 

Fulton 306 

Gun  Shields 313 

How  War  Ships  Are  Classed 310 

Military  Masts  and  Fighting  Tops 317 

Monitor 3io&323 

Cause  of  Popularity 323 

Construction 324 

Duties 324 

Turrets "325 

Primary  and  Secondary  Battery 320 

Protective  Deck 312 

Ram 334-337 

Battle  of  Lissa 336 

Early  Use 335 

First  Appearance  in  Modern  Times 335 


456  INDEX. 

EVOLUTION  OF  THE  MODERN  NAVY  — Continued.    PAGE. 

Recessed  Ports 316 

Redoubt 320 

Requirements 319 

Revolving  Turret 308 

Sponsons 316 

Stevens  Family  of  Inventors 307 

The  Modern  Warship 321 

Torpedo  Boats 327-334 

"Cigar  Boat" 327 

Gushing 327 

Discharging  Torpedo 333 

Duties  of 330 

"  Howell  " 334 

Rough  Water 330 

The  Automobile  Torpedo  in  Battle 332 

"  Warhead  " 333 

"Whitehead" 332 

Turret 313 

Vitals 312 

What  a  Naval  Battle  is  Like 338 

SPANISH  NAVY 343~353 

Battleship  "  Pelayo  " 344 

"  Cardinal  Cisneros  " 347 

"  Numancia  " 348 

Protected  Cruisers 350 

The  "  Christobal  Colon  " 346 

The  "  Emperador  Carlos  V 349 

The  "  Vizcaya  "  Class 345 

Torpedo  Boat  Destroyers 35  2 

Torpedo  Boats 353 

Unprotected  Cruisers 35 1 

"Vitoria" 349 

AMERICAN  NAVY.  354-382 

Admiral  George  Dewey 354 


INDEX.  457 

AMERICAN   NAVY  —  Continued.  PAGE. 

Admiral  Sampson 356 

"  Alabama  " 368 

Armored  Cruisers 372 

"  Brooklyn  " 373 

Captain  Mahan 358 

"  Columbia  " 375 

Commodore  Schley 355 

Composite  Gunboats 381 

Dynamite  Gunboat  "  Vesuvius  " 380 

Energy  of  Gunfire 362 

"  Illinois  " 368 

"  Iowa  " 367 

"  Kentucky  " 368 

"  Kearsarge  " 368 

Kinds  of  Battleships 365 

"  Minneapolis  " 375 

Naming  of  Cruisers 372 

Naval  Strength  of  United  States 382 

New  Battleships 369 

"  Olympia  " 376 

"  Oregon  " 366 

Plans  of  Battleships 370-371 

Plans  of  Cruisers 377-37$ 

Prize  Courts 361 

Prize  Money  for  the  Navy 360 

Ram  "  Katahdin  " 376 

Rate  of  Pay  for  Sea  Service 360 

Torpedo  Boats 382 

Torpedo  Boat  Destroyers 382 

Unarmored  Steel  Gunboats 381 

Unprotected  Cruisers 380 

"  Wisconsin  " 368 

THE  ARMY  AND  ITS  LEADERS 401-410 

Army 4°4 

Battalion 403 

29 


458 


INDEX. 


THE  ARMY  AND  ITS  LEADERS  — Continued.  PAGE. 

Brigade 403 

Brooke,  John  R 407 

Commander-in-Chief 404 

Company 403 

Corps 403 

Division 403 

Lee,  Fitzhugh 409 

Merritt,  Wesley 408 

Miles,  Nelson  A 406 

Military  Schools 405 

National  Guard 402 

Pay  of  Officers 404 

Regiment 403 

Roosevelt,   Theo 409 

Shafter,  Wm.  R 407 

Size  of  Army 401 

Volunteers 402 

Wheeler,  Joseph 408 

Wilson,  James  H 409 

ARMOR,  ORDNANCE  AND  DEFENSE 383-400 

Arms,  Small 399 

Battery,  Secondary 396 

Breech  Mechanism 388 

Extreme  Range 393 

Gun,  A   "Built-up." 386 

Gun,  Machine , 396 

Gun-Making 386 

Gun,  Maxim  Automatic 397 

Gun,  Rapid  Fire 394 

Gun  Carriages,  Disappearing 393 

Harveyized  Armor 384 

Mortars,  Twelve-Inch 392 

Powder,  Smokeless 398 

Projectiles 397 


INDEX.  459 

ARMOR,  ORDNANCE  AND  DEFENSE  — Continued.  PAGE. 

Recoil 390 

Velocity  in  Foot-Seconds 385 

THE  FUTURE  OF  AMERICA 411-416 

Colonial  Extension 414 

"  Judging  the  Future  by  the  Past." 415 

Policy  of  Washington 411 

Territory  Acquired 412 

Alaska 414 

Florida  413 

Louisiana. 413 

SPAIN. 

Contemporary  Spain 

Army  and  Navy 50 

Character  of  the  People 53 

Cities 41 

Climate  and  Soil 42 

Congress 50 

Cortes 49 

Debt 45 

Education 43 

Exports 45~46 

Finance 43 

Government 49 

Military  Schools 52 

Ministry 50 

Products 46-49 

Agricultural 46-48 

Non-Agricultural 48-49 

Religion 42~43 

Revenues 45 

Surface 42 

Taxes 45 

History 53 

Battle  of  Tours . .              56 


460  INDEX. 

SPAIN  —  Continued.  PAGE. 

Cordova 57 

Darwin's  Theory  Not  New 58 

Early  Colonization 

History. 

Globes  in  Schools 58 

Invasion  by  Goths 54 

Invasion  by  Moors 55 

Iberia 53 

Jewish  Trade 59 

Martel,  Charles 56 

Navarre 60 

Pelayo 59 

Saracens  Invade  France 56 

Synopsis  of  Contemporary  Events 61 

Union  of  Kingdoms 61 

PERIOD  OF  DISCOVERY  AND  CONQUEST 66-100 

Abdication  of  Charles  V 81 

Agriculture 88 

Antwerp 91 

Battle  of  Pavia 77 

Boleyn,  Anne 84 

Bosworth  Field 70 

Cabot 71 

Cabral 71 

Calais 98 

Charles  1 71 

Contemporary  Events 70,  83-85,  98-100 

Cortez 83 

Council  of  Trent 76 

Cranmer 85 

De  Soto 84 

Drake 99 

Edward  IV 70 

Expulsion  of  the  Jews 69 

Expulsion  of  the  Unbaptised  Moors 69 


INDEX. 


461 


PERIOD  OF  DISCOVERY  AND  CONQUEST  —  Con.  PAGE. 

Ferdinand  and  Isabella 66 

Flodden 71 

Gonzalez  de  Cordova 71 

Henry  VIII 84 

Huguenots gg 

Inquisition 68 

Invasion  of  England  Planned 92-94 

The  Engagement 94-96 

Knox 71 

Las  Casas 83 

Lepanto 91 

Loyola 73 

Mary  of  England 85 

Mary  Stuart , 99 

Navarre 96-98 

Order  of  Jesuits 73-76 

Philip  II 85-88 

Pizarro 84 

Raleigh 85 

Revolt  of  the  Netherlands 89-91 

Shakespeare 98 

Spanish  Armada 99 

St.  Bartholomew 99 

Trade  and  Industry 88 

Treaty  of  Madrid 84 

Voyage  of  Magellan 78-81 

Zwingli 70 

DECLINE  OF  SPANISH  POWER 100-142 

Alliance  of  Englancd  and  France 113 

Allied  Invasion 119 

Aix-la-Chapelle 127 

American  Revolution 1 29 

Blenheim 120 

Cession  of  Louisiana  to  France 136 

Charles  II no 


462  INDEX. 

DECLINE  OF  SPANISH  POWER  — Continued.  PAGE. 

Charles  III 128 

Charles  IV 133 

Cromwell   103,  109 

Difficulty  of  Conquering  Spain 119 

Family  Compact 129 

Ferdinand  VI 126 

Gibraltar 117 

James  1 108 

"Jenkins1  Ear  " 122 

La  Salle  134 

Moliere    107 

Netherlands 101-103 

Persecution  of  Spanish  Moors 100 

Philip  III 100 

Philip  IV 1 06 

Philip  V 1 14-1 1 7 

Pyrenees no 

States  General 1 04 

Synopsis  of  Contemporary  Events. ..  .103-106,  107-110,  112- 

114,  123-126,  127,  130-132,  138-142 

Trafalgar 137 

MODERN  HISTORY .' 142-159 

Abolition  of  Slavery 155 

Alsace  and  Lorraine. ....    158 

American  Civil  War 157 

Basque  Provinces 150 

Birth  of  Alphonso  XIII 151 

Bismarck 158 

Carlists 150 

Causes  of  Spain's  Downfall 153 

Chile 154,  158 

Crimean  War 156 

Don  Carlos 151 

Ferdinand  VII 142 

Florida 145 


INDEX. 


463 


MODERN  HISTORY  — Continued.  PAGE. 

Holland 154 

Isabella  II 149 

Lincoln,  Abraham 156-157 

Maximilian 157 

Melendez 146 

Mexico 155 

Napoleon 154 

Spanish  in  America 148 

Synopsis  of  Contemporary  Events 154-159 

Texas . .    156 

War  Between  China  and  Japan 159 

Wellington  in  Spain 143 

GROWTH    AND    LOSS    OF    SPAIN'S    AMERICAN 

COLONIES 159 

Argentine  Republic  . 159 

Buenos  Ayres  Founded 159 

Conquest  of  Natives 159 

Independence  160 

Chile 160 

Conquest  of 1 60 

Invasion  by  Pizarro 1 60 

Independence  161 

Colombian   States 166 

Invaded  by  Spaniards , 166-167 

Struggle  for  Independence 167-169 

Mexico     170-181 

Early  Inhabitants 170 

Invasion  under  Cortes 171 

Montezuma  the  Emperor 172 

"  The  Melancholy  Night " 175 

Republic  Recognized 178 

Texas  and  Mexico 179 

War  with  United  States 180 


464  INDEX. 

GROWTH    AND    LOSS    OF    SPAIN'S    AMERICAN 

COLONIES  —  Continued.  PAGE. 

Peru 161-166 

Early  Civilization 162-164 

Invasion  by  Pizarro 161 

The  Inca's  Ransom 165 

The  Royal  Fifth 165 

The  Philippine  Islands 181-187 

Geography  of 181 

History 182 

Manila 1 83 

Population 183 

Revenue 183 

Spanish  Rule 1 86 

Porto  Rico 187-190 

Geography  of 187 

History 189 

Why  Spain  Lost  her  Colonies 190-193 

Colonial  Administration 191-193 

Cruelty  to  Natives 191 

Ignores  Commerce 1 90 

THE  SPANISH-AMERICAN  WAR 417-443 

A  Century  of  American  Forbearance 417 

Appropriation  of  $50,000,000 421 

Attitude  of  Europe 422 

De  Lome  Incident 419 

"  Maine,"  Destruction  of 420 

Manila,  Battle  of 426 

Merrimac,  Sinking  of 433 

Peace  Negotiations 442 

Public  Opinion 422 

Report  of  Board  of  Inquiry 42 1 

Santiago,  Siege  of 432 

Weyler's  Policy  of  Reconcentration 419 

Appendix 443 


NOV121990 

DEC    0  6  W90 


oti4WKAPRil  1996 


03*90 


!9Ti 


3  1158  00577  0879 


